The Wari Empire: A Pre-Incan Civilization in Peru

The discussion begins with a question about the number of empires that existed in present-day Peru, highlighting the Wari Empire as a significant civilization that predates the Inca Empire. The speaker, Norma Martínez, emphasizes that the Wari Empire was a powerful entity, with its capital located in the ancient city of Wari in Ayacucho, Peru.

Norma elaborates on the rich history of the Ayacucho region, noting that it was home to great civilizations that overcame challenging geographical conditions. She explains that these civilizations formed what are referred to as empires, characterized by extensive control and cultural influence over other states, first emerging in Ayacucho between 550 and 600 CE.

The narrative shifts to the rediscovery of the Wari Empire in the 16th century, when Spanish chroniclers like Pedro Cieza de León documented ancient ruins in the Viña area. They described these ruins as remnants of a mysterious race of bearded white men, indicating the historical significance of the site, which was recognized as pre-Inca.

In the 1880s, notable Ayacuchano physician Luis Carranza published an article on the ruins of Viña, naming them Wari after the local people. By 1923, a journalist illustrated monoliths found in the area, which had been discovered around 1640 by landowners who plundered the site, taking artifacts from the tombs, leaving behind only the remnants of these ancient structures.

The speaker discusses the contributions of Benedicto Flores, who identified key archaeological sites in Ayacucho, and the subsequent involvement of Julio Centella, who published significant findings about Wari. This marked the beginning of a deeper understanding of Wari culture, which, while sharing similarities with Tiahuanaco, is recognized as a distinct phenomenon with its own cultural identity.

The phenomenon discussed extends primarily to the northern part of present-day Peru, specifically avoiding the central highlands and the central and northern coast of the country.

In 1931, Julio César Tello, known as the father of Peruvian archaeology, visited the archaeological site of Huari, marking the beginning of scientific archaeology in Ayacucho. His team collected clay vessel fragments, which were crucial in identifying the Wari culture as a distinct state, separate from Tiahuanaco, previously regarded as the primary civilization preceding the Tahuantinsuyo.

By the mid-20th century, investigations by American archaeologist Wayne Delp and Peruvian Rafael Larco Hoyle corroborated Tello's findings, establishing Wari as a culture comparable in significance to Tiahuanaco. Wendel Benet, another American archaeologist, further supported this by excavating in the region and comparing findings, leading to discussions about the cultural parallels between Wari and Tiahuanaco.

In 1957, Ayacucho archaeologist Luis Guillermo Lumbreras proposed that the Wari culture should be classified as an empire. His studies, which included collections from Tello's excavations, led him to identify seven developmental periods in ancient Peru, with the fifth period corresponding to the Wari Empire, which he dated approximately between 500 and 800 CE.

Lumbreras established that the Huari culture was the Ayacuchan cultural phase preceding Wari, with the center of Wari likely located in the settlement of Mia Wind. The Wari culture saw the strengthening of priestly power and the emergence of an incipient state structure at a local scale.

The Wari culture originated from the Huarpe culture located in Ayacucho, expanding into a vast empire that peaked between the 7th and 10th centuries AD. This culture integrated influences from Nazca on the coast and Tiahuanaco in the highlands, establishing itself as a significant pre-Incan Andean empire characterized by expansion, urban design, and a powerful military.

In the ceremonial area of Benayahu, evidence of prior Huarpe occupation has been found. Additionally, in the Vega Chayo Mojo sector of Huari, there is proof of local Huerta culture presence, contemporary with Nazca, Tiahuanaco, Recuay, and Lima cultures. The Huerta were notable for their advanced agricultural technology, constructing extensive irrigation systems and reservoirs, likely initiating water transport to Huari from 16 kilometers away at Rush Wheel.

The Huarpes engaged in significant commercial exchange with Nazca societies, leading to the creation of unique ceramics in Chakipanta. A strong religious influence from the south introduced the Conchupata ceramic style, which Lumbreras identifies as the earliest link between Huari and Tiahuanaco, attributed to shared decorative elements. This new religion, possibly originating from Lake Titicaca, was brought to Ayacucho by visitors or settlers from that region.

Despite facing harsh agricultural conditions in Ayacucho, the Wari culture thrived through ingenuity and hard work. From around 600 AD, the ruling class aimed to conquer territories like Huamanga, leading to the expansion of Wari merchants accompanied by warriors. This expansion allowed them to establish a pan-Andean empire stretching from Cajamarca and Lambayeque in the north to Cusco and Moquegua in the south, overcoming agricultural crises through trade and military support.

The Wari state was consolidated through various domains, including political, economic, and military aspects, with religious leaders playing a crucial role in its establishment. The influence of priests was significant in maintaining the state's power and cohesion, reflecting the multifaceted nature of Wari governance.

The Wari civilization was the first to dominate territories during the Middle Horizon, specifically occupying the Lima culture area and taking possession of Huaca Pucllana, which they transformed into a cemetery for their elite classes. They innovated burial practices by using large funerary bundles, incorporating false heads made of wood, and including textiles, everyday items, food offerings, and ritual objects in the graves. A notable Wari tomb was discovered at Huaca Pucllana.

Wari burial practices featured large bundles that contained flexed bodies, surrounded by layers that created volume, topped with a realistic wooden mask. These burials were rich in associated objects, indicating a complex ritualistic approach. Other significant sites, such as Zancos, also revealed similar burial characteristics.

The powerful Wari army expanded the empire's borders by subjugating entire populations. This military strength was supported by a ruling class seeking greater surplus. Excavations at Concha Pata, a secondary Wari settlement, uncovered evidence of soldiers equipped with bows, arrows, and spears, adorned in feline-themed attire. The organized and hierarchical nature of the army was evident, with findings suggesting that warriors participated in ritual dances, as some were found with musical instruments alongside their weapons.

At Huaca San Marcos, artifacts featuring engravings of war scenes were discovered, depicting battles and even a character holding a severed head, illustrating the martial culture of the Wari civilization.

The capital of the Wari empire exemplified advanced urban planning, covering approximately 600 hectares, with the peripheral area extending to 1,200 to 1,500 hectares. The city featured palaces, large-scale artisanal production areas, residential zones, ceremonial spaces, and burial sites. High walls separated different sectors, and access was controlled, indicating a structured society. Remains of individuals with cranial deformation were found, believed to be monks responsible for the worship of deities.

The ancient city of Wari is located 25 kilometers northeast of Huamanga and is estimated to have housed between 50,000 and 70,000 people at its peak. The city was organized into large residential complexes known as neighborhoods, including a central area, a funerary sector, two artisan districts, and public spaces for gatherings, some of which were surrounded by walls.

The discussion highlights the organized and planned nature of the city, showcasing its advanced drainage systems and comprehensive services. It emphasizes the presence of skilled builders, architects, and artisans, particularly noting that Ayacucho is home to some of the best artisans in Peru, reflecting a rich cultural heritage.

The famous Huamanga stone, or alabaster, has been discovered in Huarmey, linked to the Huari civilization. The Huari utilized religion as a powerful ideological control mechanism, conducting special rituals in semi-subterranean passageways, which likely enhanced the dramatic effect of their ceremonies.

A distinctive feature of the Huari culture in Ayacucho is the construction of temples shaped like the letter 'D'. These structures served not only as centers for artisanal production but also as religious pilgrimage sites, where rituals honoring ancestors and the worship of mummies took place. The presence of a solar clock for timekeeping further underscores the sophistication of their society.

Archaeologists from the National University of San Cristóbal de Huamanga are currently uncovering new findings in the Huari Manchay area, which is rich in funerary structures, including galleries, mausoleums, and rectangular central patios. Notably, a mausoleum shaped like a 'D' was discovered, containing nine rectangular cubicles and significant offerings, including Spondylus shells from Ecuador and turquoise beads.

The Huari civilization demonstrated advanced technology in their stonework, with finely crafted stones that fit together without mortar, achieving precise 90-degree angles. This craftsmanship reflects their sophisticated building techniques and architectural mastery.

In the central coast region, particularly in the Lurín Valley, the Huari culture established a significant local cult centered around Pachacámac. The elite burials found in the Goles cemetery, featuring intricately decorated textiles and wooden false heads, reveal the cultural richness and social stratification of the Huari.

The ancient oracle of Lima played a crucial role in supporting the political expansion of the Huari, acting as a key ally in their conquest of the central coast. This alliance contributed to the strengthening of the first pre-Hispanic empire in South America, which was underpinned by a deeply rooted ideology in Peru during the height of the Huari Empire.

The cult of Pachacámac became a center for large-scale pilgrimages, indicating its significance in ancient Peruvian spirituality. The establishment of this cult is traced back to the time of the Wari civilization, supported by the study of iconography found in wooden carvings at the painted temple.

The Wari Empire, similar to the Inca, relied heavily on administration and communication, utilizing an extraordinary system of roads that served as the backbone of their governance. This system, known as 'pateando' during the Inca period, facilitated connections among various regions of Peru through formalized pathways, many of which have been discovered across the country.

The discussion emphasizes that ancient Peru is characterized by cultural continuity rather than abrupt changes. The Wari and Inca civilizations, often viewed as distinct entities, actually share a lineage, having both originated in the Altiplano region. The Wari capital was in Ayacucho, while the Inca capital was in Cusco, suggesting a historical progression rather than a complete break between the two cultures.

Recent archaeological discoveries over the past 10 to 15 years indicate a strong continuity between the Wari and Inca cultures. Artifacts found in Cusco, including those from the Qorikancha, suggest that many elements attributed to the Inca period actually have Wari origins, complicating the narrative of their separation.

Two significant administrative centers, Pikillaqta in Cusco and Huiracocha Pampa in Huamachuco, were established to manage and control the economy of the imperial territories. These sites followed the urban planning patterns of the capital and served as political control hubs, leading some scholars to classify Wari as an empire, despite the term being foreign and not entirely fitting the local context.

The expansion of a specific type of ceramic and the existence of two major cities, one in Cusco named Piquillaqta and another in Huamachuco called Huiracocha Pampa, were pivotal in understanding the Wari influence. Both cities exhibited architectural similarities to Ayacucho, suggesting a cultural diffusion from that region.

The speaker compares the Inca and Wari civilizations, noting that while the Incas are recognized as an empire, the Wari's behavior and archaeological sites suggest a complex relationship that merits further exploration. This comparison highlights the nuanced understanding of ancient Peruvian civilizations and their interconnections.

The Wari expansion led to a fusion of original ceramic styles from Ayacucho with local styles from other regions, creating a pattern or trend characterized by external influences blending with regional traits. This resulted in a generalization of polychrome painting in ceramics and the introduction of carved stone and wood elements.

A significant shift in subsistence systems occurred, marked by the development of extensive agriculture utilizing terracing and expansive canal systems. Lima benefited from these advancements, particularly through the introduction of the famous Surco canal, which supported agricultural practices in the southern part of the city.

The Wari period saw a notable transformation in agrarian structures and the introduction of a pastoral economy, which included the use of animals for labor and wool production. This era also marked a rise in manufacturing, particularly in textiles, which gained considerable importance in Peru's economy.

During the imperial phase, Wari ceramics improved in quality, showcasing better finishes and a variety of regional styles. Notable artifacts included regional vessels and pitchers, particularly the 'cántaro cara gollete,' which exemplified the artistic advancements of the time.

Ceramics serve as a vital source for documenting the cultural synthesis achieved by the Wari civilization, as seen in the 'cántaro cara gollete' displayed at the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology, and History, which features depictions of men and their attire from that era.

In the Museo de Pueblo Libre, ceramics with pictorial decorations reveal representations of the god of the banks, indicating a continuity of religious practices from Chavín to Tiahuanaco, particularly evident in the Portada del Sol.

The Wari left a significant mark on contemporary Lima, particularly in burial sites like Pulianas and Waka San Marcos, where archaeological findings suggest a complex architectural presence and a unique burial system, including a five-digit numerical system distinct from the Inca's decimal system.

Andcon is highlighted as an important burial site, often overlooked, which may have served as a sanctuary for various cultures, where dignitaries were interred. Recent investigations have raised questions about the absence of political or governmental evidence in the central coast's Wari cemeteries.

The decline of the Huari Empire, which occurred around the year 1000 CE, is attributed to various factors including regional uprisings and continuous wars. These conflicts were exacerbated by a crisis stemming from a lack of production surpluses, leading to the abandonment of major cities and mass population movements. This period marked the onset of political and social instability in Ayacucho, particularly from the 11th to the 12th century, as Huari's influence became restricted to just a few valleys in the region.

Significant archaeological findings related to the Huari culture have emerged in the 21st century. In 2011, a noble Huari's tomb was discovered at the Espíritu Pampa archaeological site in the province of Cusco, containing luxurious artifacts. Additionally, in 2014, a major exhibition at the Museum of Art in Lima showcased 63 mummies of noble Huari women adorned with over 1,200 valuable items made of gold, bronze, wood, textiles, and ceramics, highlighting the important role of women in ancient Peruvian society.

The speaker expresses fascination with the Huari Empire's urban development and its ability to thrive in challenging geographical conditions, which is a hallmark of ancient Peru. The Huari Empire is noted for its influence on the later Tahuantinsuyo Empire. The speaker emphasizes that history is a continuous flow, often segmented into periods for better understanding, but fundamentally remains interconnected.