The Risorgimento: The Quest for Italian Unity in the 19th Century

The Resurgence movement, known as 'risorgimento,' emerged in the early 19th century, particularly after 1815, as a response to the political landscape shaped by Napoleon's rule. By the turn of the 19th century, nearly two-thirds of Italians lived under direct or indirect Napoleonic control, which led to a growing sense of Italian identity. Napoleon's conquests reorganized Italy into republics and monarchies, placing his relatives on the thrones, which, while introducing modern reforms like the Napoleonic Code, also fostered a perception of foreign domination among Italians.

The Napoleonic rule had a dual impact on Italian identity. On one hand, it introduced modern reforms that gradually modernized Italy; on the other hand, it was perceived as foreign oppression. This contradiction led to a burgeoning national consciousness, as exemplified by the lament of poet Giacomo Leopardi, who expressed the tragedy of Italians dying for foreign causes, highlighting the emotional and cultural ramifications of foreign rule.

Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the Congress of Vienna restored former monarchs to their thrones, with rulers like Maria Luisa of Austria in Parma maintaining some Napoleonic reforms. These restored monarchies introduced constitutions and reforms that echoed the paternalism of enlightened despotism, which, while familiar, did not fully satisfy the growing desire for national unity and self-governance among Italians. Regions like Piedmont and Naples retained many Napoleonic officials, indicating a continuity of governance despite the restoration.

Piedmont, ruled by the House of Savoy, became a pivotal state in Italy's future. The acquisition of Genoa in 1859, when the city was still attached to its old Republican institutions, sparked resentment among local merchants. This nostalgia for the Republic contributed to the broader Risorgimento movement, particularly influenced by figures like Giuseppe Mazzini, who sought to unify Italy under a republican framework.

The Duke of Savoy acquired Sardinia in 1720, gaining recognition from other European monarchs as a king. This acquisition laid the groundwork for Piedmont's significant role in the unification of Italy, as the House of Savoy would later lead the charge for national unity during the 19th century.

The ruler of Sardinia, a key figure in the unification of Italy, propagated the 'artichoke theory,' suggesting that the various states of Italy could be unified under his leadership by peeling them off like the layers of an artichoke.

The liberal movement in Italy drew significant inspiration from the nation's glorious past, particularly the legacy of the Roman Empire and the papacy in Rome. This historical appeal was crucial for those envisioning a unified Italy, as it legitimized their quest for both unity and independence.

During the first half of the 19th century, various secret societies emerged in Italy, notably the Carbonari. These societies aimed to establish constitutional regimes and expel Austrian influence from Italy, gaining traction particularly in Naples, Sicily, and the Papal States. However, they lacked mass support and a coherent ideology, leading to their eventual ineffectiveness despite influencing future leaders.

The Risorgimento was significantly influenced by a cultural movement that emphasized a unified Italian identity rather than regional divisions. This movement was expressed through poetry, novels, and literature, with figures like the poet Ugo Foscolo gaining prominence. In 1816, Petro Jordani noted that the term 'Italy' resonated little with people's hearts, highlighting the need for a cultural awakening.

In Milan, the publication of 'Conciliatore' by Neori, Beet, and Pelico called for a cultural and economic awakening in Lombardy. In Florence, the bookseller Vioso collaborated with philologist Tommasio and historian Cap P to produce an anthology that promoted moderate liberalism, fostering a more national than local identity. Historians like Canu and Troa, along with novelists like Massimo D'Azeglio and Guazi, contributed to this intellectual resurgence by recalling Italy's glories and linking the past to contemporary developments.

The slow emergence of industrial and mercantile capitalism in Italy, particularly in the northern regions, began to shape the socio-economic landscape, contributing to the broader context of the Risorgimento and the quest for national unity.

The introduction and expansion of railways in Italy was driven by the desire for better communication and integration of Italy as a market. This economic development favored the growth of political liberalism, as liberalism became the political creed of emerging capitalism in the early 19th century. However, several factors hindered the emergence of a liberal movement, including Italy's prolonged disunity, linguistic differences, uneven economic and social development, and significant regional disparities.

The overpowering presence of Austria was a major obstacle to Italian unity and liberal movements. Between 1815 and 1848, Austria repeatedly suppressed liberal movements that demanded constitutional reforms. The Italian nationalists faced the overwhelming need to drive Austria out of Italy, which was gradually failing due to the strength of the Austrian regime.

The movement for Italian unity and liberal institutions began to take shape between 1815 and 1848, often manifesting as sporadic revolutions. The first significant uprisings occurred in 1821, starting in Naples and Sicily, led by General Pepe. However, these revolutions were swiftly suppressed by Austria, which intervened to maintain control over the region. The subsequent uprising in Piedmont also faced similar suppression, highlighting the challenges faced by those seeking political change.

The Neapolitan and Piedmontese movements for political freedom ended in failure due to a lack of coordination, insufficient popular support, and the hostility of European powers. The Neapolitan rebels failed to engage the Sicilians with a liberal attitude, while the Piedmontese movement was limited to a small clique without broad public backing. Despite these failures, they provided instructive lessons for the future of the Italian liberal movement and the quest for unity.

After a decade of relative peace, Italy experienced renewed turmoil following the July Revolution in France. This led to a wave of popular movements across Northern and Central Italy, resulting in the granting of constitutions in various regions, including Bologna, Parma, and Modena. The establishment of the United Provinces of Central Italy in February 1831 was a significant development, supported by a propaganda campaign from the Committee of Italian Emancipation. Even Louis-Philippe of France showed sympathy by sending troops to Ancona to assist the Italian rebels.

Giuseppe Mazzini emerged as a pivotal figure in the Italian unification movement, deeply affected by the loss of Genoa to Piedmont. He was an idealist, often referred to as the 'prophet of the Italian state that was not yet but to be.' Mazzini's vision for Italy was imbued with a spiritual message, influenced by a diverse range of literature, including the Bible, Shakespeare, and Victor Hugo. He founded the Young Italy Society in 1831 in Marseille, advocating for a unified Italian state, which he believed was a divine mission for the people.

Mazzini's concept of nationalism was profound; he viewed it as a divine share granted to a people in the work of mankind, emphasizing that Italy had a unique mission to fulfill God's purpose. He envisioned Italy as a successor to the Roman Empire and the Papacy, fostering a passionate and idealistic sense of 'Italianness' among the populace. Mazzini's belief in Italy's ability to achieve unity independently was a cornerstone of his ideology, contrasting with the views of others who saw him as a radical lacking practical political sense.

While Mazzini championed a popular and democratic vision for Italy, other leaders like Vincenzo Gioberti proposed a more monarchical and aristocratic approach, advocating for a federation under the Pope's leadership. This perspective was supported by figures such as Balbo, who prioritized unity over liberty, looking to the House of Savoy to lead the unification efforts. By the early 1840s, three main options for Italian unification emerged: Mazzini's republican movement, Gioberti's papal federation, and the leadership of the House of Savoy.

By the mid-1840s, Charles Albert of Sardinia began to lean towards a more aggressive stance against Austria, aiming to strengthen Sardinia and unify Italy under his rule. Although not a liberal, he permitted his minister, Massimo d'Azeglio, to introduce reforms that would enhance his popularity and position him as a leader capable of rallying support for the expulsion of Austrian influence from Italy. This shift encouraged the liberal factions to renew their efforts towards unity and independence.

The new Pope, Pius IX, initially appeared somewhat liberal, but his liberalism was superficial. Tensions arose between his role as a ruler and the liberal movements, leading to Austria's occupation of Ferrara in 1846-47 to suppress a liberal uprising, which ultimately failed as the Pope rallied European powers to restore order.

The revolutionary movements of 1848 in Italy were marked by significant popular participation, including riots in Lombardy. Although Austria temporarily withdrew, the movement led to the establishment of a short-lived republic in Rome, headed by Giuseppe Mazzini, following the expulsion of the Pope. However, this republic was ultimately crushed by combined efforts from Spain, Naples, and France, with Garibaldi heroically defending it for over a month before the Pope was restored.

After the collapse of the Roman Republic, Austria regained control over Venice and Lombardy, restoring the previous rulers to their central Italian duchies and kingdoms. This setback suggested that the unification of Italy would remain a distant goal, despite the revolutionary fervor of 1848.

The next lecture will explore how, despite the setbacks following the revolutions of 1848, Italy would eventually achieve unification between 1848 and 1861.