The Rise and Fall of Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina

The chapter of Argentine history known as the Era of Roses is characterized by political turmoil and power struggles, particularly in Buenos Aires.

In early 1835, Argentina was on the brink of civil war following the assassination of the federal leader Juan Facundo Quiroga, reigniting old conflicts among the provinces.

The main challenge during this period was achieving national organization, with the Southern United Provinces embroiled in violent disputes to establish a unified country.

After Quiroga's death, Rosas returned to power in Buenos Aires, promising to restore order and end the prevailing anarchy.

Rosas, a powerful landowner, was elected governor in 1829 with extraordinary powers, during which he restored order, stabilized the economy, founded towns, and signed peace treaties.

Rosas faced political challenges when denied extraordinary powers by the legislature, leading to his resignation. However, he later returned to power with both extraordinary powers and public authority.

Following the Federal Pact of 1831, the provinces gradually joined the Argentine Confederation, a union of 14 states granting varying degrees of autonomy to Buenos Aires in foreign relations.

Buenos Aires primarily focused on cattle farming for leather exports, leading to economic disparity with the interior provinces lacking key resources like customs control.

The interior provinces and the littoral regions faced trade disadvantages due to Buenos Aires' liberal trade policies favoring English imports, impacting local industries and artisans.

Across the border, an independent political space emerged with the Mapuche territory, allowing indigenous peoples to govern themselves and maintain autonomy.

Juan Manuel de Rosas, a prominent figure in Argentine history, recognized the importance of Andean trade routes and access to valuable natural resources like salt and freshwater. These resources played a crucial role in the economic development of the region.

Unlike many landowners of his time, Juan Manuel de Rosas showed a unique attitude towards the common people, understanding and embracing their demands. This approach distinguished him as a leader capable of connecting with and representing the popular sectors of society.

Upon assuming power, Juan Manuel de Rosas removed both Unitarians and Federalists from the administration, replacing the traditional blue color associated with Unitarians with the red color of Federalists. This move led to the exile of many opposition members.

Encarnación Escurra, the wife of Juan Manuel de Rosas, played a significant role in politics by forming the 'Sociedad Popular Restauradora,' later known as 'La Mazorca.' This organization, acting in support of Rosas, suppressed any opposition to his rule, resulting in numerous casualties.

Facing political fragmentation and civil conflicts, Juan Manuel de Rosas implemented a new customs law in 1836 to rebuild trade. This law restricted imports to boost regional economies, leading to the revitalization of agriculture, domestic industries, and viticulture.

Under pressure from English merchants, Juan Manuel de Rosas shifted to a protectionist economic policy, reopening the port of Buenos Aires to English products. This move marked a significant change in trade relations and economic growth during his rule.

The Generation of '37, influenced by European romanticism, sought to blend European ideas with local culture. Figures like Juan Bautista Alberdi, Esteban Echeverría, and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento were part of this intellectual group, challenging Juan Manuel de Rosas' conservative regime.

After three years in power, Juan Manuel de Rosas managed to stabilize Buenos Aires' finances through customs reforms and land sales. However, his administration also faced criticism for closing the university and cutting educational funding.

In 1838, a French naval blockade on the port of Buenos Aires led to devastating economic consequences for the Confederation. The blockade caused shortages, economic crisis, and hindered both imports and exports, severely impacting the economy of Buenos Aires.

In 1838, a French naval ship arrived at the Rio de la Plata and blockaded the port of Buenos Aires in retaliation for accusations made by Rosas. This blockade had serious economic repercussions and was used by opposition forces to undermine Rosas' power.

The year 1838 marked the beginning of a civil war in Argentina, triggered by various factors including the French blockade, opposition to Rosas' rule, and uprisings in different provinces. This conflict would result in significant bloodshed and challenge the hegemony of the federal leader.

Facing economic turmoil due to the French blockade, Rosas took extreme measures to stabilize the situation. One notable action was the annulment of the enfiteusis law, which allowed for the sale of state lands. This decision caused discontent among landowners in Buenos Aires province, leading to the formation of the 'Libres del Sur' movement.

The rebellion of 'Libres del Sur' centered in towns like Dolores, Chascomús, and Monsalvo, aimed to challenge Rosas' policies. Landowners in the region recruited peons to join the rebellion, expanding their forces and planning to raise regiments to oppose Rosas' rule.

Simultaneously, insurrections erupted in regions like Entre Ríos, threatening Rosas' dominance. These uprisings received support from the French-blockaded Banda Oriental and were led by figures like Juan Lavalle, a known opponent of the federalists and the assassin of Manuel Dorrego.

Martín and Bolívar, where he performs heroically and earns the nickname 'the Lion of Riobamba'. He fights in the war with Brazil, showcasing his military skills. Upon his return, he leads a coup to remove Dorrego, who is then executed by Lavalle.

During his brief dictatorship, Lavalle instills terror among his federal enemies. In 1829, he reaches a peace agreement with Rosas and the Uruguayan parties. However, ten years later, he aims to overthrow Rosas.

In 1838, Lavalle faces a personal tragedy as his wife, Encarnación Curvas, passes away. This event marks a turning point as his daughter, Manuelita, emerges in the political scene, transitioning from military to a more humane and political role.

Manuelita vigilantly monitors conspiracies, staying alert to potential conflicts. She transitions from a military background to a more political and humanistic role, navigating the turbulent political landscape with caution and foresight.

The revolution in the southern regions fails to gather the anticipated strength, with a small and poorly equipped force. Desertions and deaths plague the rebel ranks, leading to significant challenges in sustaining the movement.

Lavalle forms a coalition of unitarians and former federals, backed by French ships and the Uruguayan government. Lavalle's attempts to advance and overthrow Rosas face resistance from various fronts, leading to intense and bloody confrontations.

By 1840, all uprisings threatening Rosas' power are quelled. Rosas focuses on resolving disputes with France, eventually signing a peace treaty in 1840 and lifting the blockade on the Río de la Plata after two years.

Following his defeat by Rosas' army, Lavalle's attempts to regroup and reengage in combat fail. Despite ongoing threats of rebellion in different regions, including Corrientes, where Governor Pedro Ferré mobilizes forces against Rosas.

The governor of Corrientes issued a manifesto of war against Rosas, leading to an advance towards Buenos Aires but suffering a crushing defeat in the battle of Arroyo Grande at the end of 1842.

Justo José de Urquiza, a politician and military leader from Entre Ríos, amassed a significant fortune through trade, cattle exports, and salting establishments.

After five years of bloody struggles, Rosas achieved a total victory over all his enemies in 1843, regaining complete power.

In 1843, European powers like France and England, historically enemies, allied to confront Rosas, who faced resistance in Montevideo.

After restoring internal order, Rosas aimed to besiege Montevideo, a significant center of opposition, sparking a conflict with France supported by England.

In 1845, despite European demands for peace and free navigation of rivers, Rosas adamantly refused, leading to a massive invasion of the Río de la Plata by powerful foreign fleets.

The Federalists viewed Unitarians negotiating with imperialists as traitors, with Rosas declaring members of invading powers as pirates and gaining full support from interior provinces.

The Argentine defense at Vuelta de Obligado was ingenious but precarious, facing off against foreign fleets in the Paraná River.

In 1845, during the Battle of the Paraná River, 24 boats crossed the imposing Paraná River, with only 10 of them carrying explosives. On one side, the most powerful fleet in the world advanced, while on the other side, Lucio Mansilla, a distinguished military figure and brother-in-law of Rosas, defended the nation. Despite being outnumbered, Mansilla displayed great courage in the face of the Anglo-French fleet.

From the cliffs of the Paraná River, the Rosas army engaged in a fierce battle against the enemy forces. The struggle lasted for several hours until the Anglo-French fleet landed and seized national goods. Although ending in defeat, this episode symbolized the defense of national sovereignty.

In 1847, following the failed Anglo-French expedition, San Martín praised Rosas for his resistance and bequeathed his famous curved saber to him in his will, acknowledging Rosas' efforts in defending the nation.

After the Anglo-French retreat, Rosas emerged as a victorious leader, hailed as the only ruler on the continent to defeat the powerful European nations. Popular support for Rosas soared as he defended the country from imperialist threats and maintained internal order.

In 1851, Justo José de Urquiza, the governor of Entre Ríos, challenged Rosas by accepting his resignation from handling foreign relations and assuming control himself. This marked a significant shift in power dynamics and set the stage for a pivotal battle in Argentine history.

By 1850, Rosas' political influence had strengthened, leading to a period of high prestige and popularity. Despite annually resigning from managing foreign relations since 1835, Rosas expected his resignation to be rejected. However, in 1851, Urquiza's acceptance signaled a turning point in Argentine politics.

Urquiza's rebellion in 1851 demanded free river navigation for trade and accused Rosas of denying national territory a constitution. While Rosas prioritized achieving lasting peace before constitutional reforms, Urquiza's challenge led to the buildup of a significant army against Rosas' rule.

Urquiza forms alliances with other leaders who seek the downfall of Rosas. He prepares a large army with the support of Corrientes, Uruguay, and Brazil. Rosas, in turn, receives support from many provinces, despite being viewed as a traitor by the unitarians. Urquiza boldly lifts the ban on unitarian colors, leading to the country being filled with blue. The opposition forces against Rosas, including federals, anti-racists, unitarians, intellectuals, and autonomists, unite out of a deep hatred for the restorer.

Urquiza forms the 'Ejército Grande' with 28,000 men and significant firepower. The army is financially supported by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento and led by a young colonel named Bartolomé Mitre.

The armies of Urquiza and Rosas finally clash at the Palomar de Caseros. Rosas, the governor of Buenos Aires, sustains a gunshot wound to his right hand during the battle. As Urquiza's victory becomes inevitable, Rosas and his army retreat to Buenos Aires.

Following his defeat, Rosas resigns from the legislature and departs for England with Manuelita. Buenos Aires falls prey to looters from both sides, leading to harsh repression and executions of rebels.

Three months after the Battle of Caseros, the Treaty of San Nicolás is signed, determining the details of the constituent congress. Urquiza becomes the provisional director of the Argentine Confederation. Despite most provinces agreeing to a constitutional organization, Buenos Aires remains politically tense. Rosas, stripped of his assets, lives in exile in Southampton, away from his homeland, until his death on March 14, 1877, at the age of 84.

Juan Manuel de Rosas remains a highly controversial figure in Argentine history, viewed as both a great defender of national sovereignty by some and the worst of tyrants by others.