The Indian National Congress: A Historical Overview

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The instructor outlines the curriculum, mentioning that they have already covered significant portions of Indian history, including ancient, medieval, and modern periods, and will now focus on the history of the Indian National Congress from 1885 to 1947.

Today's class will delve into the Indian National Movement, discussing key events and developments related to the Congress during this period, following a previous class on the Indian Revolutionary Movement.

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The instructor reiterates the focus of today's class on the history of the Indian National Congress, starting from its establishment in 1885 and progressing through to 1947.

The discussion outlines the timeline leading to India's independence, highlighting significant events from 1885 to 1947. Key milestones include the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885, the partition of Bengal in 1905, the Surat split in 1907, the Delhi Durbar in 1911, the Delhi Conspiracy in 1912, the Lucknow session in 1916, and the commencement of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920.

The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded on December 28, 1885, by Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British ICS officer. The INC played a pivotal role in India's freedom struggle, with many prominent leaders associated with it. The speaker emphasizes the importance of understanding the INC's formation, its first session, and its major sessions, which are crucial for the MPPSC prelims.

The speaker plans to divide the study of the Indian National Congress into two parts: an introduction to its formation and a discussion of its major sessions. The INC held over 50 significant sessions, and the speaker highlights the importance of knowing the presidents of these sessions and the key events that occurred, such as the Surat split in 1960, presided over by Rasbihari Ghosh, and the Lucknow session in 1916, where a compromise was reached between the Congress and the Muslim League under the presidency of Ambika Charan Mazumdar.

The term 'Congress' is derived from North America, meaning a group of people. The speaker notes that the INC was established as a platform for the Indian populace to unite against colonial rule. The first meeting of the Congress was decided to be held annually in December, which was termed a session.

The first session of the Indian National Congress took place in 1885, marking a significant moment in India's political history. The speaker emphasizes the need to remember the date of establishment, the founder Allan Octavian Hume, and the context provided by Lord Dufferin, who referred to the Congress as a 'microscopic minority of India.'

The first session of the Indian National Congress was initially scheduled to be held in Pune. However, due to an outbreak of plague in the city, the session was canceled and relocated to Mumbai. The session took place on December 28, 1885, at the Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Mumbai.

The first session was presided over by Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee, with Allan Octavian Hume serving as the General Secretary. A total of 72 members participated, including prominent leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Kashi Nath Telang, and Firoz Shah Mehta. Notably, Surendranath Banerjee did not attend as he was involved with the Indian National Association.

During the first session, the Congress was originally named the Indian National Union. However, upon the suggestion of Dadabhai Naoroji, it was renamed the Indian National Congress. The objectives of the Congress were also established during this session, marking a significant moment in Indian political history.

The Congress was referred to as the first national assembly of India in a newspaper called 'The India Mirror,' which was published from Calcutta. This recognition highlighted the Congress's role in representing Indian interests.

The Indian National Congress was founded on December 28, 1885, by Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British ICS officer. Hume is often referred to as the 'Harmit of Shimla,' and his biography was written by William. The Congress's original name was the Indian National Union, which was changed to Indian National Congress based on Naoroji's suggestion.

At the time of the Congress's founding, the Viceroy of India was Lord Dufferin, who described the Congress as a minority institution, indicating the perception of the Congress's role in representing a specific segment of Indian society.

The Indian National Congress was established with participation from 707,200 individuals, primarily educated urbanites. Critics, including some British officials, viewed its formation as a minor organization, suggesting it was created to suppress the growing national movement in India. Conversely, others believed it was founded with the intention of supporting India's quest for independence.

The concept of the 'Safety Valve' theory was introduced by Lala Lajpat Rai and William Butterworth, suggesting that the Congress was a mechanism to channel dissent against British rule. This theory posited that the British government established the Congress to manage and control the rising revolt against colonial authority, allowing for a controlled outlet for nationalist sentiments.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale defended the Congress's establishment, arguing that it was a necessary institution to prevent the British government from suppressing the national movement entirely. He proposed the 'Gradualist Theory,' which suggested that the Congress would facilitate the advancement of the national movement without provoking severe backlash from the British authorities.

By 1905, the Indian National Congress faced internal divisions, particularly between the moderates, represented by figures like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gokhale, who advocated for gradual reform, and the extremists, including Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin Chandra Pal, who called for more direct action against British rule. Lord Curzon remarked that the Congress was faltering, indicating the growing rift within the organization.

Arvind Ghosh predicted that the Congress was on the verge of a significant transformation, hinting at the impending split between the moderate and extremist factions. This division was emblematic of the broader struggle within the Indian independence movement, reflecting differing strategies and philosophies regarding the approach to British colonial rule.

During the discussion, it was noted that when the division of Congress was occurring, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee remarked that Congress members were hungry for power. Mahatma Gandhi suggested that Congress should be dissolved after independence, highlighting a significant reaction to the formation of Congress and the differing opinions on its future.

The speaker emphasized the importance of understanding the Congress sessions, reassuring listeners not to panic about the number of sessions. He mentioned that over 50 sessions took place before independence, but only 20 to 25 are crucial for study. The term 'session' was explained as an annual meeting, which is essential for grasping the historical context of Congress.

The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in 1885 in Bombay, presided over by Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee, with 72 attendees. The name 'Indian National Congress' was adopted based on the advice of Dadabhai Naoroji, although a prominent leader, Surendranath Banerjee, did not attend this session.

The second session took place in December 1886 in Calcutta, chaired by Dadabhai Naoroji, who became the first Parsi president of Congress. The speaker highlighted that Naoroji served as president three times: in 1886, 1893 in Lahore, and 1906 in Calcutta, which is a notable detail for understanding leadership in Congress.

The third session was organized in 1887 in Madras, where Badaruddin Tyabji became the first Muslim president of the Indian National Congress. This session marked a significant moment in Congress history, as it was during this time that Lord Dufferin began criticizing the Congress, indicating the political tensions of the era.

The session in Kolkata in 1886 was presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, marking the first session of the Indian National Congress. The second session took place in 1887 in Madras, with Badruddin Tyabji as the first Muslim president of the Congress. The fourth session occurred in 1888 in Allahabad, where George Al, the first European president of the Congress, presided. This session also saw the participation of prominent leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, while Sir Syed Ahmad Khan opposed the Congress, urging British officials not to attend its sessions.

Key questions often arise regarding the first presidents of the Congress: Dadabhai Naoroji was the first Parsi president in 1886, Badruddin Tyabji was the first Muslim president in 1887, and George Al became the first European president in 1888. The discussions also highlight the chronological order of the Congress sessions held in Bombay in 1885, Kolkata in 1886, Madras in 1887, and Allahabad in 1888.

The fifth session of the Congress took place in 1899 in Bombay, presided over by William Butterworth. He introduced the 'Safety Valve Theory' in collaboration with Lala Lajpat Rai and authored a biography of A.O. Hume, a key figure in the Congress's formation. This session was notable for establishing the India Committee in London, which aimed to publish a newspaper named 'India,' marking the Congress's expansion beyond Indian borders.

The sixth session was held in Kolkata, presided over by Firoz Shah Mehta, and was significant for the participation of Kadambini Ganguly, the first female graduate of India. The twelfth session in 1896 also took place in Kolkata, where 'Vande Mataram,' a song written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, was sung for the first time. This event is often questioned in examinations regarding the Congress's early sessions.

The discussions encapsulate the initial 15 years of the Indian National Congress, highlighting the foundational sessions and their significance in shaping the political landscape of India. The narrative emphasizes the importance of remembering key dates, names, and events that defined the early years of the Congress.

The important Congress session took place in Varanasi in 1905, where Gopal Krishna Gokhale became the president for the first time. Gokhale is noted for presenting the 'Lightning Conductor Theory' related to the origin of Congress. He is also recognized as Mahatma Gandhi's political guru and founded the 'Servants of India Society' in 1905, which is sometimes referred to as the 'Servants Society of India'. Gokhale advocated for self-rule similar to that of Australia and Canada, which were British colonies that received dominion status, allowing them autonomy while still recognizing the British Crown.

In 1906, the Kolkata session of Congress was presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, who had previously introduced significant theories such as the 'Drain of Wealth' and the concept of industrialization in India. He authored the book 'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India' and was the first Indian elected to the British House of Commons on a Labour Party ticket. Naoroji served as Congress president three times: in 1886 in Kolkata, in 1893 in Lahore, and finally in 1906 in Kolkata, where the term 'Swaraj' was first officially used in Congress discussions, although it was originally coined by Dayanand Saraswati.

The Surat session of Congress occurred in 1907, chaired by Ras Bihari Ghosh. This session marked the first division of Congress into two factions: the 'Moderates' and the 'Extremists'. Ras Bihari Ghosh was a liberal leader, contrasting with Ras Bihari Bose, who was a revolutionary figure. The split reflected the growing ideological rift within the Congress party, highlighting the tensions between those advocating for gradual reform and those pushing for more immediate and radical change.

The Indian National Congress experienced a significant division in 1907 during the Surat session, led by Rash Bihari Ghosh. This division separated the moderates, represented by leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, from the extremists, including Lala Lajpat Rai and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The split was formalized at the Surat session, where the moderates and extremists were effectively expelled from the Congress. Lala Lajpat Rai rejoined the Congress in 1916, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak followed later.

The first division of the Congress occurred at the Surat session in 1907, which is a crucial historical event. The session was presided over by Rash Bihari Ghosh, marking a pivotal moment in the Congress's evolution. The division led to the emergence of two factions: the moderates and the extremists, which would shape the future of the Indian independence movement.

The 1911 session of the Congress, held in Kolkata, was notable for being the tenth session in the city, with a total of seven sessions each in Bombay and Madras. This session was significant as it marked the first time the national anthem 'Jana Gana Mana' was sung, symbolizing a growing sense of national identity among Indians.

The Lucknow session of 1916, presided over by Ambika Charan Mazumdar, was a landmark event as it marked the re-integration of the Congress after its split in 1907. This session saw the coming together of the moderates and extremists, and it also established a crucial agreement between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League, known as the Lucknow Pact. Key figures like Mohammad Ali Jinnah and Bal Gangadhar Tilak played significant roles in this reconciliation.

The 1917 session of the Congress, also held in Kolkata, was significant as it was the first time a woman, Annie Besant, served as the president of the Congress. This marked a pivotal moment for women's participation in the Indian independence movement, which had begun as early as the fifth session of the Congress in 1889, when women were first allowed to participate.

The discussion highlights the significant milestone of Annie Besant becoming the first woman president of the Indian National Congress in 1917 during the Calcutta session. Besant, originally from Ireland and associated with the Theosophical Society, played a crucial role in the Indian Home Rule Movement, which gained traction across South India and beyond. Her contributions included participation in the First Round Table Conference and the publication of newspapers like 'Commonweal' and 'New India'.

The 33rd session of the Indian National Congress held in Amritsar in 1919, presided over by Motilal Nehru, marked a pivotal moment as the Congress condemned the Jallianwala Bagh massacre that occurred on April 13, 1919. This event was a response to widespread protests against the Rowlatt Act, which had incited public outrage. The Congress also expressed support for the Khilafat Movement during this session.

In 1920, the Nagpur session of the Congress was significant as Mahatma Gandhi sought to initiate the Non-Cooperation Movement, having returned to India around 1915. Gandhi had already led successful movements such as the Champaran, Kheda, and Ahmedabad mill workers' movements, establishing his reputation. He aimed to unify various movements under the philosophy of Satyagraha, which would later include the Civil Disobedience Movement and the Quit India Movement. The Nagpur session proposed the Non-Cooperation Movement, although it was not passed at that time.

Due to the failure to pass the Non-Cooperation Movement proposal at the regular session, a special session was convened in Kolkata in 1920, chaired by Lala Lajpat Rai. This session aimed to address the unresolved issues from the previous meeting and was crucial in shaping the Congress's strategies moving forward.

In the early 20th century, several prominent leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Arvind Ghosh, and Bipin Chandra Pal, did not become presidents of the Indian National Congress. However, during the special session of Congress in 1920, Lala Lajpat Rai was elected as president, approving the Non-Cooperation Movement.

In 1923, a special session of Congress was held in Delhi under the presidency of Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, who, at approximately 35 years old, became the youngest president in Congress history. This session was significant as it occurred during a period of political transition, with the formation of the Swaraj Party by Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru.

The 1924 Belgaum session of Congress marked Mahatma Gandhi's first presidency. During this session, the Congress and the Muslim League, which had united in 1916 at the Lucknow Pact, officially separated again. Gandhi would not preside over Congress again after this session.

In 1925, the Kanpur session of Congress was notable for being presided over by Sarojini Naidu, marking the first time an Indian woman held the presidency. While Naidu was the first Indian female president, Annie Besant had previously served as the first woman president of Congress in 1917 during the Kolkata session.

The 1926 session in Guwahati was chaired by Srinivasa Iyengar, where it was mandated that Congress leaders wear khadi. The following year, in 1927, the Madras session, led by Dr. A.M. Ansari, decided to boycott the Simon Commission, which was set to arrive in India, reflecting growing discontent with British policies.

The 45th session of the Indian National Congress, held in Lahore in 1929 and presided over by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, was one of the most significant gatherings in Congress history. This session was pivotal as it declared the goal of 'Purna Swaraj' or complete independence for India, marking a crucial turning point in the Indian independence movement.

The Congress passed a resolution demanding complete independence rather than dominion status, as advocated by leaders Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose. This decision was made during the Lahore session, where it was decided to celebrate January 26, 1929, as Independence Day, marking the day when the flag was hoisted by the Ravi River. The Indian Constitution was prepared by November 26, 1949, but it came into effect on January 26, 1950, which is a crucial date to remember.

The 46th session of the Congress in 1931, chaired by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in Karachi, focused on the demand for fundamental rights and accepted the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. This pact was significant as it marked a compromise between Mahatma Gandhi and the British government, following the Simon Commission's report. The Congress decided to participate in the second Round Table Conference, with representation by Gandhi himself.

The 1937 Faizpur session, chaired by Jawaharlal Nehru, was notable for being the first Congress session held in a village. This session, held in Bengal, marked a significant shift in the Congress's approach, emphasizing grassroots engagement and the importance of rural India in the national movement.

In 1938, a significant conference was held in Haripura, where Subhas Chandra Bose was elected as the President of the Indian National Congress for the first time. Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the National Planning Committee was organized during this conference.

The 1939 Congress session took place in Tripura, Madhya Pradesh, which was crucial as it marked the resignation of Subhas Chandra Bose from the Congress. During this session, an internal election was held for the presidency, where Bose faced off against Pattabhi Sitaramayya, who was supported by Mahatma Gandhi. Ultimately, Bose won the election, leading to internal conflicts within the Congress.

Following his victory, differences arose within the Congress, prompting Subhas Chandra Bose to resign and establish the Forward Bloc in 1939. His subsequent journey included travels to Japan and Germany, where he became the President of the Indian National Army in Singapore and later declared the establishment of a provisional government in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

After Bose's resignation, the Tripura session was ultimately chaired by Rajendra Prasad, as Bose had stepped down from his position. This session is noted for its importance in the Congress's history.

In 1940, the Congress session was held in Ramgarh, presided over by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. This session was pivotal as it discussed the Quit India Movement, leading to the Congress being declared an illegal organization, which resulted in the suspension of its regular sessions from 1941 to 1945.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad remained the President of the Congress for five consecutive years during this period of inactivity. He holds the record for being the youngest and the longest-serving president of the Congress prior to India's independence, a notable point in the party's history.

In 1946, the Congress session took place in Meerut, presided over by G. K. Gokhale, as India was on the brink of independence. A significant question arises regarding the location of the Congress session at the time of India's independence, which was indeed in Meerut, with G. K. Gokhale as the president. Following India's independence on August 15, 1947, G. K. Gokhale resigned from the presidency, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad succeeded him. It is crucial to remember that at the time of independence, G. K. Gokhale was the president of the Congress.

The discussion covered various significant events in the Indian National Movement, including the Round Table Conference, the Surat Split, the Lucknow Pact, and the Poona Pact. Additionally, movements such as the Civil Disobedience Movement, Non-Cooperation Movement, and Quit India Movement were also discussed, providing a comprehensive glimpse into the Indian National Movement's history.

After a brief 20-minute break, the focus will shift to detailed discussions on pivotal events starting from the Bengal Partition in 1905, leading up to the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi in India. Participants are encouraged to revise the discussed sessions and prepare for the upcoming topics.

Upon resuming the class, a quick revision of key facts related to the Congress was conducted. Notably, Surendranath Banerjee did not participate in the first Congress session, while Annie Besant became the first foreign woman president, and Sarojini Naidu was the first Indian woman president. The youngest president was Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, who also had the longest tenure. The Congress held the most sessions in Kolkata, totaling ten, with seven sessions in Madras and Mumbai. At the time of independence, the president of Congress was G. K. Gokhale.

The history of the Congress can be divided into three phases: the first phase from 1885 to 1905, known as the Moderate phase, led by figures like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale; the second phase, the Extremist phase, featuring leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak; and the third phase, the Gandhian phase, where Mahatma Gandhi played a pivotal role alongside other leaders. This structure also applies to the broader history of the Indian National Movement.

The Indian National Congress was established in 1885, marking the beginning of organized political activity in India. The discussion will now transition to a detailed examination of each event, starting from the Congress's formation and moving through its evolution and significant milestones.

At this time, Congress leaders are not openly opposing Britain. They are not organizing protests or strikes but are instead making requests to the British government, sending letters asking for their concerns to be addressed. This approach is characterized as liberal, contrasting with the more radical actions that would emerge after 1905, where protests and articles against the British government would be labeled as extremist.

A significant event following the formation of Congress is the partition of Bengal in 1905, which is recognized as a pivotal moment in British India. Bengal was the most populous province, encompassing present-day West Bengal and Bangladesh, with a population of 72 million. The British claimed administrative difficulties due to the large population as a reason for the partition, intending to improve governance. However, the partition was executed along communal lines, leading to a majority Muslim population in one part and a majority Hindu population in the other, which sparked widespread opposition and the Swadeshi movement, initiated from the Town Hall in Calcutta.

The announcement of the Bengal partition was made on July 20, 1905, and it was implemented on October 16, 1905, by Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India. The partition divided Bengal into Western Bengal, which included Bihar and Odisha, and Eastern Bengal, which incorporated Assam, a region not previously part of Bengal. The capital of Western Bengal was established in Kolkata, while Dhaka became the capital of Eastern Bengal. This division exacerbated communal tensions, with Hindu populations being predominant in the west and Muslim populations in the east.

In 1905, the political landscape of India was marked by significant figures such as Sachin, the Home Secretary, and Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India. The discussion highlights the importance of remembering these key players in the context of India's administrative changes.

The partition of Bengal was announced on July 20, 1905, and implemented on October 16, 1905. This division was not merely for administrative convenience but aimed to weaken the national movement against British rule. The partition split Bengal into West Bengal, which included areas of Bihar and Odisha with a Hindu majority, and East Bengal, which included present-day Bangladesh and Assam, characterized by a Muslim majority.

West Bengal's territory included regions from Bihar and Odisha, with Kolkata as its capital, while East Bengal's capital was Dhaka, incorporating Assam. The demographic shift was significant, with West Bengal having a higher Hindu population and East Bengal a predominant Muslim population, reflecting the British strategy to create divisions among communities.

The announcement of the Bengal partition sparked widespread opposition among the educated classes in India, leading to the emergence of the Swadeshi Movement. This movement was formally launched on August 7, 1905, from the Town Hall in Kolkata, as a direct response to the British decision to partition Bengal.

Despite the protests, Lord Curzon proceeded with the implementation of the partition on October 16, 1905. This date was marked by a day of mourning, referred to as 'Shok Divas' or 'Day of Mourning.' Rabindranath Tagore proposed to celebrate this day as 'Raksha Bandhan' or 'Unity Day' instead, emphasizing the need for solidarity among Hindus and Muslims against British divisive tactics.

The discussion begins with the celebration of Friendship Day, which is observed alongside a day of mourning. The speaker reflects on the historical context of the Swadeshi movement, noting that it was initiated on July 20, 1905, with a significant event taking place at the Town Hall in Kolkata on August 7, 1905. The movement was officially effective from October 16, 1905, and was marked by the observance of a day of mourning and the promotion of unity.

In 1906, during a Congress session in Kolkata presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, a pivotal decision was made to shift the Congress's policy. The Congress resolved to promote Swadeshi goods, boycott British products, and advocate for national education and self-governance. This marked a departure from previous strategies that focused on requesting reforms from the British government.

The speaker highlights the significant impact of the Bengal partition, describing it as a grave mistake by the British, as noted by leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Surendranath Banerjee. The partition was met with strong opposition, leading to the Swadeshi and boycott movements. In 1906, the Arun Deyal Committee was established, advocating for the reversal of the partition, which was ultimately addressed during the Delhi Durbar in 1911.

During the Delhi Durbar in 1911, attended by British Emperor George V and Queen Mary, two crucial decisions were made: the capital of India was moved from Kolkata to Delhi, and the partition of Bengal was revoked. This decision led to the administrative separation of Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and Assam, marking a significant change in the political landscape of India.

The Congress session in Kolkata in December 1906, chaired by Dadabhai Naoroji, was pivotal in redefining the Congress's objectives. The Congress committed to promoting Swadeshi, boycotting foreign goods, and advancing national education and self-governance. This session marked a significant shift in the Congress's approach towards British rule and the empowerment of Indian society.

The discussion begins with the mention of the arrival of Pancham and Rani in India, leading to the organization of the Delhi Durbar in 1911 by the then Viceroy of India. Following this, the partition of Bengal is highlighted, which will result in the formation of separate states: Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and Assam, along with Silhat. This historical context is crucial for understanding the broader narrative of the Swadeshi movement.

The Swadeshi movement is introduced, with its origins traced back to Krishna Kumar Mitra's magazine 'Sanjeevani'. In Andhra Pradesh, it was known as the 'Vande Mataram' movement, with Rabindranath Tagore's 'Amar Sonar Bangla' becoming the national anthem of Bangladesh later on. The movement gained momentum during the Surat session in 1906 under the presidency of Dr. Rash Bihari Ghosh, leading to a split in the Indian National Congress into the 'Moderates' and 'Extremists'. Key figures like Lokmanya Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Syed Haider Raza, and Chidambaram Pillai played significant roles in advancing the movement across various regions.

The formation of the Muslim League in 1906 is discussed, initiated by Aga Khan and Nawab Salimullah Khan of Dhaka. The background includes the influence of U. Hunter's book 'Indian Muslims', which argued that British rule could be sustained by creating a divide between Hindus and Muslims. The League's headquarters was established in Lucknow, with its first session held in Karachi and the second in Amritsar. The impact of the Muslim League is noted as a significant factor leading to the eventual partition of India.

The political dynamics surrounding the 1905 partition of Bengal are examined, where both Hindus and Muslims initially demonstrated unity. However, U. Hunter's narrative suggested that to maintain British control, a rift between the two communities was necessary. The partition was executed along religious lines, with Hindus in West Bengal and Muslims in East Bengal. Despite initial unity, figures like Aga Khan sought political advantage by supporting the partition, advocating for a communal electoral system that would reserve seats for Muslims in legislative bodies.

In 1906, a significant organizational meeting took place in Dhaka, then the capital of East Bengal, led by Aga Khan and Nawab Salimullah Khan. This meeting resulted in the formation of the Muslim League, which aimed to create a political platform for Muslims in India. The British had decided to create a divide between Hindus and Muslims, and the Muslim League would later play a crucial role in demanding Pakistan, leading to the partition of India in 1947.

The Indian National Congress held its Kolkata session in 1906, presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, where it adopted the Swadeshi Movement, promoting Indian goods and boycotting British products. This movement was part of a broader strategy to foster national education and self-governance. However, there was a split in ideology within the Congress, with leaders like Firoz Shah Mehta and Gopal Krishna Gokhale advocating against boycotts, fearing it would lead to the dissolution of the Congress by the British government.

In 1907, the Congress faced a significant split during its Surat session, chaired by Rasbihari Ghosh. The division arose between the moderates, who wanted to limit the Swadeshi Movement to Bengal and abandon boycotts, and the extremists, led by figures like Lala Lajpat Rai and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who sought to expand the movement nationwide. The moderates prevailed, leading to the separation of the extremist faction from the Congress, marking a pivotal moment in the Indian independence struggle.

The Minto Reforms marked the beginning of communal representation in India, introducing separate electorates for Muslims. This meant that reserved seats would be allocated for Muslims, granting them voting rights. Mahatma Gandhi criticized these reforms, stating they led to the destruction of India, as they sowed the seeds of communalism that eventually contributed to the partition of the country.

In 1911, the second Delhi Durbar was held, attended by King George V and Queen Mary, with Lord Hardinge II serving as the Governor-General of India. This event followed the first Delhi Durbar, which was organized by Lord Lytton when Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. The Durbar coincided with significant political changes, including the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi and the annulment of the partition of Bengal.

In 1912, the Hoarding Conspiracy, also known as the Delhi Conspiracy, occurred when revolutionaries attempted to assassinate Lord Hardinge during the capital transfer ceremony. The attack took place in Chandni Chowk, resulting in the arrest of 13 individuals, including Bal Mukund. The incident highlighted the growing revolutionary sentiments in India, with some conspirators later forming the Indian Independence League in Japan.

A review of significant events leading up to 1912 reveals the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885, the partition of Bengal in 1905, and the subsequent Swadeshi Movement initiated in Calcutta on October 16, 1905. The Congress sessions in 1906 and 1907 addressed the partition and its implications, culminating in the 1911 Delhi Durbar, which marked the shift of the capital to Delhi.

In 1916, two major events unfolded in India: the Lucknow session of the Congress and the initiation of the Home Rule Movement. This movement was championed by Annie Besant, with its headquarters in Adyar, Madras, and also by Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The Home Rule Movement aimed to secure self-governance for India, reflecting the growing demand for political rights and autonomy.

The discussion highlights the upcoming Congress session in Lucknow, where it is anticipated that an agreement will be reached between moderates and extremists within the Congress party, as well as a potential compromise with the Muslim League.

The Home Rule Movement, initiated in 1916, is introduced, with Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak being key figures. Annie Besant, who arrived in India in 1893, played a significant role in promoting the movement, which aimed for self-governance under British rule.

The term 'Home Rule' originates from the Irish language, meaning the right to self-governance for a country or region. It was first established by Irish leader John Redmond in Ireland, and Annie Besant brought this concept to India, advocating for administrative control while leaving military and foreign relations to the British.

The primary objective of the Home Rule Movement was to achieve self-governance under British rule. The movement was characterized by two distinct branches: Bal Gangadhar Tilak's movement, which began in April 1916 in Maharashtra, and Annie Besant's All India Home Rule Movement, which started in September 1916.

A comparison is drawn between Tilak's and Besant's Home Rule Movements. Tilak's movement was established in Pune, Maharashtra, while Besant's was initiated in Madras. Tilak's movement focused on Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Central Provinces, whereas Besant's encompassed all of India, except for the areas covered by Tilak's movement.

The leadership of the Home Rule Leagues is discussed, with Joseph Webster leading Tilak's league and George leading Besant's. The propaganda methods differed as well; Tilak's league utilized the newspapers 'Maratha' and 'Kesari,' while Besant's league used 'Commonwealth' and 'New India.' Both movements shared the common goal of achieving self-governance under British rule.

The Home Rule movement initiated by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1916 was centered in Pune, while Annie Besant's movement began in Madras in the same year. Tilak's movement primarily advanced in Karnataka and Maharashtra, contrasting with Besant's broader reach across India, excluding Tilak's regions. The leadership of Tilak's movement included Joseph Webster and Sachin N.C. Kelkar, while Besant's movement was supported by the newspapers 'Maratha' and 'Kesari' associated with Tilak, alongside 'Commonweal' and 'New India' linked to Besant.

Lala Lajpat Rai established the Home Rule League in America, while the London branch was founded by Secretary Graham Paul. Tilak famously declared, 'Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it,' likening India to a daughter who has matured and deserves her rightful claim. The Congress Special or Home Rule Special train, filled with Tilak's supporters, traveled from Maharashtra to the Lucknow session of Congress in 1916, which was presided over by Ambika Charan Mazumdar. This train symbolized the unity and support for Tilak's cause.

The Lucknow session of Congress in 1916, chaired by Ambika Charan Mazumdar, was significant for two major developments: the agreement between Congress and the Muslim League, known as the Lucknow Pact, and the reunion of the moderate and extremist factions within Congress. This session saw substantial contributions from Tilak and Besant, facilitating cooperation between the Congress and the Muslim League, with notable figures like Tilak and Muhammad Ali Jinnah playing pivotal roles.

The discussion transitions to Mahatma Gandhi's introduction and his early movements, summarizing key events from 1885 to 1916. This timeline includes the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, the announcement of the Bengal partition on July 20, 1905, the initiation of the Swadeshi movement on August 7, 1905, and the effective implementation of the Bengal partition on October 16, 1905. Additionally, the establishment of the Muslim League in Dhaka in 1906 and the Congress session in Kolkata that same year, presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, are highlighted.

In 1907, the Indian National Congress experienced a significant division. This was followed by the introduction of the Minto-Morley Reforms in 1909, and the Delhi Durbar was held in 1911. The Hoarding Bomb Conspiracy occurred in 1912, leading to the initiation of the Home Rule Movement in 1916, which coincided with the Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the Muslim League.

Mahatma Gandhi, born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat, was originally named Karamchand Gandhi. His mother was Putlibai, and his father, Karamchand Gandhi, served as the Diwan in Porbandar and Rajkot. Gandhi married Kasturba at the age of 13 and completed his early education in Rajkot before studying law in London. He moved to South Africa in 1893 to represent a client, where he first employed the concept of Satyagraha.

After spending 21 years in South Africa, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India on January 9, 1915. This date is now celebrated as NRI Day in India. During his time in South Africa, he established the Tolstoy Farm and wrote his autobiography, 'The Story of My Experiments with Truth,' published in 1925. His principles of truth and non-violence were central to his philosophy.

Gandhi was significantly influenced by figures such as John Ruskin, Leo Tolstoy, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, the latter being his political mentor. He learned about civil disobedience from Tolstoy and was deeply impacted by the Jain principle of non-violence. Tragically, on January 30, 1948, he was assassinated by Nathuram Godse, leading Jawaharlal Nehru to remark that light had gone out of our lives.

Upon his return to India during World War I, Gandhi was conferred the title 'Kaiser-i-Hind' by the British government for his support during the war. He urged Indians to assist the British, warning that Germany posed a global threat. His contributions during this period earned him the title of 'Indian Volunteer Sergeant' as well.

Mahatma Gandhi was bestowed with various titles throughout his life, reflecting his impact and recognition. Notably, he was referred to as 'Malang Baba' by the tribes of North West Frontier and Baluchistan during the Lal Kurti Movement. Other titles included 'Fakir' by Winston Churchill, 'King of Beggars' by Madan Mohan Malaviya, and 'Father of the Nation' by Subhas Chandra Bose. The British government awarded him the title 'Kesar-e-Hind', while Rabindranath Tagore honored him with the title 'Mahatma'. These titles highlight the diverse perceptions of Gandhi across different contexts and times.

Gandhi's philosophy is fundamentally centered around the principles of truth and non-violence, which he considered the core of his teachings. He is often described as a philosophical anarchist, advocating for a society without government where individuals govern themselves. Gandhi envisioned a system where power resides with the villages, promoting self-governance and communal responsibility. This radical idea of governance reflects his belief in the inherent capability of people to manage their own affairs without external authority.

Gandhi introduced the Trusteeship Principle, advocating that wealthy individuals should view their surplus wealth as a trust for the benefit of society. He argued that the affluent should not hoard their wealth but instead use it for the welfare of the community. This principle emphasizes social responsibility and the ethical obligation of the rich to contribute to the common good, framing wealth as a resource to be shared rather than a personal asset.

Mahatma Gandhi's journey to South Africa began in 1893 when he traveled to Durban to represent a Gujarati trader, Dada Abdullah, in a legal case. Having studied law in London, Gandhi became the first Indian lawyer to practice in South Africa. Upon arrival, he witnessed the severe discrimination faced by Indians under British colonial rule, which prompted him to take action. In 1894, he founded the Natal Indian Congress to address the grievances of the Indian community and began publishing the 'Indian Opinion' newspaper in multiple languages, including Gujarati, Hindi, English, and Tamil, to raise awareness and advocate for their rights.

In 1904, ten years after his arrival in South Africa, Gandhi established the Phoenix Ashram in Durban. This ashram became a center for his social and political activities, embodying his principles of communal living and self-sufficiency. It served as a base for his efforts to organize the Indian community against discrimination and injustice, reflecting his commitment to social reform and the empowerment of marginalized groups.

The first ashram established by Mahatma Gandhi was the Phoenix Ashram in Durban, South Africa, founded in 1904. This ashram played a crucial role in Gandhi's early activism, particularly in the context of the Indian community in South Africa.

Mahatma Gandhi conducted his first Satyagraha in South Africa in 1906, marking a significant moment in his activism. This was the first time he employed the method of nonviolent resistance, which would later become a cornerstone of his philosophy.

In 1909, while returning from London to South Africa, Gandhi wrote 'Hind Swaraj,' a pivotal book outlining his vision for Indian self-rule. This period also saw the establishment of the Natal Indian Congress in 1894, which aimed to address the grievances of Indians in South Africa.

In 1910, Gandhi established Tolstoy Farm with the help of German craftsman Kallenbach to support those involved in Satyagraha. This initiative provided shelter and sustenance for activists, reflecting Gandhi's commitment to their welfare during the struggle against discrimination.

By 1914, Gandhi's efforts led to the repeal of many discriminatory laws against Indians in South Africa, showcasing the effectiveness of his nonviolent resistance. Following this success, Gandhi returned to India on January 9, 1915, after 21 years abroad.

Upon returning to India in 1915, Gandhi became instrumental in various movements, including the Champaran and Kheda Satyagrahas, and later the Quit India Movement. His leadership and strategies significantly contributed to India's struggle for independence.

From 1915 to 1920, Mahatma Gandhi engaged in significant activities in India, starting with his return during World War I. He led the Champaran movement in 1917, followed by the Kheda Satyagraha in 1918 and the Ahmedabad mill workers' movement in the same year. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre occurred in 1919, and the Rowlatt Act was enacted that same year. In 1920, the Treaty of Sèvres was signed, leading to the humiliation of the Caliph in Turkey, which prompted the Khilafat Movement in India, supported by Gandhi.

Gandhi, influenced by his political mentor Gopal Krishna Gokhale, initially supported the British during World War I, believing that this would lead to India's independence post-war. Both Gandhi and Gokhale thought that supporting the British would result in India being granted dominion status similar to Australia and Canada. Gandhi was later honored with the title 'Kesar-e-Hind' for his efforts during the war.

Upon joining the Indian National Congress, Gandhi distinguished himself by mobilizing the masses, including laborers and farmers who had previously been disengaged from politics. His approach significantly expanded the Congress's base, although he had not yet initiated any movements at that time. The Lucknow session of 1916 was pivotal, where he met Rajkumar Shukla, who informed him about the plight of farmers in Champaran.

In response to the grievances of farmers in Champaran, who were forced into indigo cultivation under oppressive conditions, Gandhi accepted Shukla's invitation to visit. In 1917, he launched the Champaran Satyagraha, marking his first significant movement in India, aimed at securing the rights of the farmers against the exploitative practices of landlords.

The first use of Satyagraha by Mahatma Gandhi in India occurred in 1917 in Champaran, Bihar, against the oppressive 'Tin Kathiya' system, initiated by Rajkumar Shukla. Gandhi's movement involved non-violent protests, including strikes and sit-ins, without resorting to violence. Key figures supporting Gandhi included Rajendra Prasad, Kripalani, Narhari Parekh, and Kishore Mahadev Desai. The movement led to the formation of a commission, the abolition of the 'Tin Kathiya' system, and the return of 25% of the illegal collections made by the plantation owners. Rabindranath Tagore conferred the title 'Mahatma' upon Gandhi following this successful movement, marking the beginning of Gandhi's rise as a prominent leader in India.

In 1918, Gandhi initiated the Kheda Satyagraha in Gujarat in response to oppressive tax collection during a famine. He argued that if the government waived the tax, capable individuals would voluntarily pay their dues. Key supporters included Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Indulal Yagnik, Mahadev Desai, and Narhari Parekh. The movement successfully pressured the government to collect taxes only from those who could afford to pay, further solidifying Gandhi's reputation as a leader of the masses.

Gandhi's third significant Satyagraha occurred in Ahmedabad, where mill workers protested against inadequate bonuses amidst rising inflation post-World War I. Gandhi organized a peaceful strike, including a hunger strike, to demand a 35% increase in bonuses. The mill owner, Ambalal Sarabhai, and his daughter Anushaya were involved in the negotiations. The successful outcome led to the acceptance of the bonus demand and the establishment of the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association, marking Gandhi's first hunger strike and a pivotal moment in his activism.

The discussion revisits key events in Gandhi's early activism, starting from 1893 when he arrived in Durban, South Africa, to fight Abdullah's case. In 1894, he founded the Natal Indian Congress, and in 1896, he established the Phoenix Ashram in Durban. These foundational experiences laid the groundwork for his later movements in India, showcasing his commitment to social justice and civil rights.

The first ashram was established by Gandhi, followed by his first use of Satyagraha in 1906 in South Africa. In 1908, he made his first visit to South Africa, and in 1909, he authored the book 'Hind Swaraj'. In 1910, he opened the Tolstoy Farm in South Africa.

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India on January 9, 1915, during World War I. He supported the British, which led to him being honored with the title 'Kesar-e-Hind'. However, he was also referred to as 'Sargent' by the British in India. Gandhi, influenced by his mentor Gopal Krishna Gokhale, believed that supporting the British would lead to Indian independence.

In 1916, Gandhi attended the Lucknow session where he met Rajkumar Shukla, who informed him about the exploitation of farmers in Champaran, Bihar, through the Tinkathia system. In 1917, Gandhi led a successful movement against this system, resulting in its abolition, supported by figures like Mahadev Desai and Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

In 1918, Gandhi was called to Kheda, Gujarat, where a severe famine had occurred, yet taxes were still being collected. He initiated a Satyagraha against this injustice, which was also successful. During this time, in Ahmedabad, mill workers protested against not receiving bonuses, leading Gandhi to conduct his third Satyagraha, where he undertook a hunger strike. This resulted in a 35% reduction in taxes.

By 1918, Gandhi had emerged as a significant leader in India, setting the stage for national movements. In March 1919, the Rowlatt Act was introduced, leading to widespread protests, notably the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on April 13, 1919, where General Dyer ordered the shooting of unarmed civilians. In response, Gandhi initiated the Khilafat Movement and later the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920.

The Non-Cooperation Movement faced a setback in February 1922 due to violence in Chauri Chaura, prompting Gandhi to suspend the movement in March 1922. This led to divisions within the Congress, with leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das wanting to continue electoral participation, resulting in the formation of the Swaraj Party in 1923.

In 1927, the Simon Commission arrived in India to review the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919, but it faced widespread opposition as it included no Indian members, highlighting the growing discontent among Indians regarding their political representation.

The Simon Commission faced widespread protests across India, particularly after the death of Lala Lajpat Rai. In 1931, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev executed a conspiracy in Lahore, leading to significant repercussions. The British government challenged Indians to draft a constitution with full consensus, promising to consider their demands.

In response to the Simon Commission's challenge, a conference was convened in Delhi under the presidency of Ahsan Ali. A committee was formed, led by Motilal Nehru, which produced the Nehru Report. This report, significant for its demand for fundamental rights in the constitution, was accepted by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who proposed 14 amendments, known as Jinnah's 14 Points.

The Lahore session of the Congress in 1929, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, marked a pivotal moment as the Congress formally demanded complete independence. On January 26, 1930, Independence Day was celebrated along the banks of the Ravi River in Lahore. In the same year, Gandhi presented his 11-point demands, which were ultimately rejected.

The discussion transitioned to the Round Table Conferences, which included three sessions aimed at addressing India's constitutional future. The narrative will continue to explore events from the Rowlatt Act to Gandhi's 11-point demands.

The Rowlatt Act, officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, was introduced in response to increasing revolutionary activities in India. In December 1917, a committee led by Sydney Rowlatt recommended stringent laws to curb these activities, leading to the Act's passage by the British Parliament in March 1919.

The Rowlatt Act allowed magistrates to detain any Indian without trial, effectively enabling arrests without legal representation or due process. This law was criticized as a 'black law' due to its oppressive nature, denying individuals the right to a fair trial and legal counsel.

The Rowlatt Act sparked widespread opposition across India. Mahatma Gandhi condemned it as anti-freedom and a violation of fundamental human rights, leading to organized protests against this draconian legislation.

Mahatma Gandhi established the Satyagraha Sabha and called for a nationwide strike. In Delhi, Swami Shraddhanand protested against the Rowlatt Act, leading to resignations from the Central Legislative Assembly by prominent figures including Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malviya, and Mazhar-ul-Haq. Gandhi and Shraddhanand were en route to Punjab when they were arrested in Palwal, Haryana, raising concerns about who would lead the protest in Punjab.

In Punjab, Dr. Satpal and Saifuddin organized a Hindu-Muslim unity rally against the Rowlatt Act. In response, Lieutenant Governor Michael O'Dwyer imposed martial law across Punjab, empowering military commander Edward Harry Dyer to maintain order. Dyer's first action was to arrest Dr. Satpal and Saifuddin, escalating tensions in the region.

On April 13, 1919, a gathering of approximately 20,000 people was held at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, organized by Hansraj to protest the arrests of Satpal and Saifuddin. Edward Dyer, accompanied by 150 soldiers, arrived without warning and opened fire on the crowd, resulting in over 1,000 deaths, with some estimates suggesting more than 5,000 casualties. This tragic event is known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre sparked widespread outrage across India. Notable figures like Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest against the British actions, while Sankaran Nair resigned from the Viceroy's Committee. The incident was condemned as a brutal act of violence, with many referring to it as a massacre, highlighting the growing discontent against British rule.

In 2013, British Prime Minister David Cameron referred to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, which occurred on April 13, 1919, as a shameful event. Following this, various committees and inquiries were established to investigate the incident. The most significant was the Hunter Commission, formed by the British government, which included eight members, three of whom were Indian: Chaman Lal, Shital Ward, and Sultan Ahmad. The commission concluded that General Dyer did not fire intentionally but under duress, suggesting he should have been warned. However, no substantial action was taken against Dyer; he was merely removed from his position and later celebrated in Britain as a protector of the British Empire, receiving honors such as the 'Sword of Honour.' This reflects the duplicity of the British response to the massacre, where the Hunter Commission was seen as a mere facade.

The aftermath of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre saw over 5,000 innocent, unarmed people killed, yet the British government took minimal action. In 2013, Cameron acknowledged this event as one of the most shameful in British history. Additionally, the Indian National Congress, led by Madan Mohan Malviya, formed its own inquiry committee, which included prominent figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Motilal Nehru. They criticized the Hunter Commission's findings and demanded punishment for Dyer, although he ultimately faced no consequences.

Parallel to these events was the Khilafat Movement, initiated by Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, with Gandhi serving as the committee's president. This movement arose after World War I, following Britain's victory and the defeat of Turkey, which had been fighting against Britain. The Treaty of Sèvres, signed by Britain, was seen as an affront to the Islamic world, particularly as the Khalifa, the spiritual leader of Muslims, was disrespected. This led to widespread protests demanding respect for the Khalifa and the protection of Islamic sentiments.

Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali initiated the Khilafat Movement in India, which Mahatma Gandhi viewed as a means to foster unity between Hindus and Muslims. Gandhi supported the movement despite Jinnah's warning against linking the national movement with religious sentiments. A Khilafat Committee was formed, with Gandhi as its president.

The Non-Cooperation Movement, the first national movement, commenced on August 1, 1920, and concluded in 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident. The movement was fueled by events such as the Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and the economic hardships post-World War I. The formal initiation coincided with the death of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, leading to the establishment of a Tilak Fund aimed at raising one crore rupees to support the movement.

The Congress's approval was crucial for the Non-Cooperation Movement. Initially, a special session in Kolkata in September 1920, chaired by Lala Lajpat Rai, did not grant permission for the movement. However, in December 1920, during the Nagpur session led by Chittaranjan Das, the movement received approval, marking a significant shift in Congress's stance.

Key leaders like Mahatma Gandhi renounced the title 'Kesar-e-Hind', while Jamnalal Bajaj gave up 'Rai Bahadur'. Prominent figures such as Chittaranjan Das, Motilal Nehru, and Jawaharlal Nehru abandoned their legal practices. The movement promoted boycotting government education and encouraged indigenous products, leading to the establishment of institutions like Kashi Vidyapeeth, Jamia Millia Islamia, and Gujarat Vidyapeeth in 1920.

In 1921, Lord Reading replaced Lord Minto as Viceroy, initiating a crackdown on the movement. The arrest of Ali Brothers, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, who were pivotal in the Khilafat Movement, triggered Gandhi's threat to launch a nationwide strike coinciding with the visit of the Prince of Wales. This period also saw Gandhi in Bardoli, emphasizing the urgency of the situation.

On February 5, 1922, violence erupted in Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, where a police station was attacked by a group of individuals, marking a significant and troubling escalation in the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Mahatma Gandhi was deeply saddened by the caste-based violence during the movement, as his core principles were based on truth and non-violence. Consequently, he decided to end the movement, which culminated in a police charge during a procession led by Godhan Ahir, resulting in the deaths of 20 individuals. The government punished 170 people, while Madan Mohan Malviya successfully defended 151 of them.

On February 12, 1922, while in Bardoli, Gandhi announced the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement. In 'Young India', he expressed his willingness to endure any suffering but would never accept violence. Subsequently, in 1922, Judge Bloomfield sentenced Gandhi to six years in prison, although he was released in 1924 due to health issues.

In 1924, Gandhi presided over a conference in Belgaum, Karnataka, which remains the only Congress session he chaired. This conference was significant in the context of the ongoing political struggle.

Lala Lajpat Rai proposed a resolution against Gandhi's decision, arguing that punishing the entire nation for the sins of one locality was unjust. Subhas Chandra Bose noted that the public's enthusiasm was high, and withdrawing from the movement was akin to a national crisis. Motilal Nehru and others echoed similar sentiments, emphasizing that the punishment for one village's failure to uphold non-violence should not extend to others.

Chittaranjan Das remarked on Gandhi's initial courage in starting the movement, but criticized his eventual retreat. Jawaharlal Nehru expressed disappointment that the struggle was halted just as they were making progress. This encapsulated the full narrative of the Non-Cooperation Movement initiated by Gandhi in 1920, which had gained approval at the Nagpur session of Congress.

During the movement, Gandhi renounced the title 'Kesar-e-Hind'. Initially, Lord Minto was the Viceroy when the movement began, but Lord Reading took over as the Viceroy as the movement progressed. Gandhi protested against the arrest of Ali Brothers, which led to significant events during this period.

Although Gandhi ended the movement, he indicated that the Congress would continue its efforts. He advised the Congress not to participate in elections organized by the British government, which led to dissent among leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das, who believed in contesting elections.

In 1923, dissatisfied with Gandhi's stance, Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das formed the Swaraj Party after separating from Congress. This was a direct response to Gandhi's desire to maintain the Non-Cooperation Movement and avoid participating in elections, highlighting the ideological rift within the Indian National Congress.

In March 1930, the Swaraj Party was formed in Allahabad, led by Chittaranjan Das. Mahatma Gandhi expressed concern about the potential division of the Congress Party, especially with the ongoing cooperation movement and growing discontent among the public towards him. To address this, a special session was convened in Delhi under the presidency of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, allowing Congress members to support the Swaraj Party individually, effectively merging the two entities.

The Swaraj Party achieved significant electoral success in the 1923 elections, winning 22 out of 42 seats in the Central Provinces, becoming the largest party in Bengal, and the second largest in the United Provinces and Assam. This success led to an agreement between Gandhi and Chittaranjan Das, where the Swaraj Party would advance the political movement while Gandhi would focus on raising public awareness.

The Simon Commission was established in 1927, ahead of its scheduled 1929 review of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms from 1919. The commission, chaired by John Simon, was controversial as it included no Indian members, which sparked widespread protests. The British Prime Minister at the time was Stanley Baldwin, representing the Conservative Party.

The Indian National Congress held a session in Madras, led by Maulana Ansari, where they decided to oppose the Simon Commission, emphasizing that it was formed without Indian input. On February 3, 1928, the commission arrived in Mumbai, facing protests, particularly from Jawaharlal Nehru and Govind Ballabh Pant in Lucknow, and from Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab, who died from police brutality during the protests.

The Simon Commission's key recommendations included the abolition of the dual governance system, the establishment of separate provincial status for Odisha and Sindh, the expansion of voting rights, and the need for future commissions to consider the interests of minority communities. These recommendations laid the groundwork for the subsequent Round Table Conferences.

The Simon Commission was established following the recommendations of the Government of India Act 1935. It was formed two years earlier than planned, in 1927, instead of the scheduled 1929, under the chairmanship of John Simon. This early formation and the absence of Indian members led to widespread opposition, as the commission was intended to shape future policies for India without any Indian representation.

The Simon Commission's report was crucial as it laid the groundwork for the Government of India Act 1935, which significantly influenced India's constitutional framework. Historically, British governments had periodically created constitutions or policies for India, with notable reforms occurring in 1909, 1919, and culminating in the 1935 Act. The exclusion of Indians from the commission was a major point of contention, leading to protests and resistance from Indian leaders.

In 1928, the Simon Commission arrived in India, facing immediate backlash, particularly in Bombay, where protests erupted. Notably, Lala Lajpat Rai was injured during a police baton charge while opposing the commission in Lahore, which ultimately led to his death. The Indian National Congress convened in Madras and resolved to oppose the commission, although the commission itself remained unaffected by these protests.

The Simon Commission submitted its report in 1928-29, recommending the abolition of the dual government system established by the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919. The commission argued against the division of subjects into reserved and transferred categories, advocating for a more unified governance structure. This dual governance had roots in the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, where Robert Clive had implemented a similar system in Bengal, consolidating power.

The Simon Commission proposed that provincial governments in India should have more powers while the central government should retain limited authority. It also recommended expanding voting rights. Following this, the Commission's report was presented, prompting British MPs to plan the next significant initiative for India, with the British Prime Minister advocating for Indian participation.

The first Round Table Conference took place in 1930, followed by the second in 1931 and the third in 1932. The Indian National Congress did not participate in the first two conferences, but it did attend the 1931 conference after the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. Despite these efforts, no substantial agreements were reached, leading to the British government publishing a White Paper based on the conference outcomes, which ultimately resulted in the Government of India Act of 1935.

The Government of India Act of 1935 was influenced by the Simon Commission's recommendations, the Round Table Conferences, and the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The Act represented a significant development in India's governance structure, reflecting the ongoing dialogue between Indian leaders and the British government.

Indians were increasingly vocal about their desire to be included in the planning processes for their governance. In response, Lord Birkenhead challenged Indian leaders to draft a constitution with unanimous consent, which led to a multi-party meeting in Delhi in February 1928, chaired by Motilal Nehru. This meeting resulted in the Nehru Report, which, however, faced opposition from Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who proposed 14 amendments, known as Jinnah's 14 Points, to address concerns regarding minority rights.

On January 31, 1930, Mahatma Gandhi articulated 11 demands to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, and British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald through his publication 'Young India.' These demands were ultimately ignored, prompting Gandhi to initiate the Civil Disobedience Movement, marking a pivotal moment in India's struggle for independence.

The Civil Disobedience Movement, which followed the Simon Commission's recommendations and Gandhi's 11 demands, became a crucial phase in India's fight for independence. This movement was characterized by widespread non-compliance with British laws and regulations, aiming to challenge colonial authority and assert Indian rights.

Mahatma Gandhi initiated a movement immediately after his demands were not accepted. He first inquired about the status of his 11 demands, which he presented in a letter to Lord Irwin and then British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. When these demands were ignored, Gandhi commenced the Dandi March on March 12, 1930, marking the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

The Dandi March was scheduled for January 12, 1930, as part of the Civil Disobedience Movement. The speaker indicated that further details would be discussed after a 20-minute break, emphasizing the importance of this historical event.

The speaker clarified a confusion regarding the Non-Cooperation Movement, stating that its acceptance occurred during a special session in Kolkata led by Lala Lajpat Rai. The implementation policies were later developed at the Nagpur session under the leadership of Veer Durgabai Deshmukh, where the Congress also revised its national strategy.

The background of the Civil Disobedience Movement was discussed, highlighting that Gandhi's 11-point demands were not acknowledged, prompting the Dandi March in March 1930. The movement spanned from 1930 to 1934 and was divided into two phases.

The First Round Table Conference took place in 1930, and on March 5, 1931, a compromise was reached between Gandhi and the British government, known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. This agreement was crucial as the Congress, being the largest party in India at the time, had boycotted the conference, making it incomplete without their participation.

In December 1931, Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference in London, but the Congress gained nothing from this meeting, leading to another boycott of the conference upon Gandhi's return in December 1932.

In 1932, British Prime Minister announced the Communal Award, which proposed separate electoral representation for the Dalit community, similar to that of Muslims. Gandhi opposed this decision and began a hunger strike, leading to the Pune Pact between him and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

The Third Round Table Conference was held in London in 1932, although the details of this conference were not elaborated upon in the transcript.

The Congress party did not participate in the three Round Table Conferences. The leaders who attended were primarily Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. Between the first, second, and third conferences, significant events occurred, including the signing of the Communal Award and the Poona Pact.

In 1937, provincial elections were held in India. By March 1940, the demand for Pakistan was formally presented by the Muslim League. On August 8, 1940, Lord Linlithgow proposed the August Offer, urging Indian support for Britain in World War II, which was rejected by both the Congress and the Muslim League, as the latter sought separate constitutional assemblies for Pakistan and India.

Mahatma Gandhi initiated the Individual Satyagraha in October 1940. The Cripps Mission arrived in India in March 1942 but ultimately failed. Consequently, the Quit India Movement was launched on August 8, 1942, leading to the arrest of major leaders, which hindered the movement's success.

Between 1942 and 1947, significant events included the formation of the Azad Hind Fauj by Subhas Chandra Bose, the operation of radio communications from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the capture of Azad Hind Fauj soldiers, and the Royal Navy Mutiny. Ultimately, India gained independence in 1947.

The Dandi March, led by Mahatma Gandhi, commenced on March 12, 1930, marking the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement inspired by Gandhi's principles. This first phase lasted until March 5, 1931, concluding with an agreement between Gandhi and Lord Irwin. Following this, Gandhi attended the second Round Table Conference in London, which also ended unsuccessfully.

The Civil Disobedience Movement unfolded in two phases: the first from March 12, 1930, to March 5, 1931, and the second from January 1932 to 1934. By 1934, the movement had cooled down, and Gandhi shifted his focus to Harijan service, influenced by the Poona Pact.

The Simon Commission's arrival led to the rejection of the Nehru Report, prompting the Congress to adopt the goal of complete independence in 1929. The global economic depression in 1929 also played a role in the rejection of Gandhi's eleven-point demands, setting the stage for the Dandi March and subsequent movements.

On April 6, 1930, after a 385 km journey, Gandhi reached Dandi in Gujarat, where he famously defied the salt law by producing salt, marking the formal declaration of the Civil Disobedience Movement. This act was a direct challenge to the British-imposed salt tax, symbolizing the broader struggle for Indian independence.

On March 11, Mahatma Gandhi presented 11 demands to Ranjit Macdonald, stating that if these demands were met, they would support Britain. However, if not, he would initiate a civil disobedience movement.

On April 6, 1930, upon reaching Dandi, Gandhi announced the movement's agenda, which included the defiance of the salt law, non-payment of taxes, protests against foreign goods, and boycotts of government schools. He emphasized the use of truth and non-violence throughout the movement.

Gandhi identified salt as a significant issue that resonated with all Indians, regardless of caste or religion, as it was a common necessity. This strategic choice aimed to unify the masses and engage them in the struggle for independence.

Gandhi viewed the various movements, including the Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, and Quit India Movement, as extensions of one another. He never declared an end to these movements but rather suspended them, indicating a continuous struggle for independence.

Various regional leaders played crucial roles in the independence movement. In Manipur, the Yadunand movement was led by Jadu Nung, while in Tamil Nadu, C. Rajagopalachari spearheaded efforts. Other notable figures included Kitti Madhavan in Malabar and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan in the North-West Frontier Province.

The Dharasana incident involved a brutal police crackdown on a peaceful protest led by Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu, and others against the salt law. This event highlighted the violent repression faced by Indian leaders and activists during the civil disobedience movement.

Gandhi's Dandi March commenced on March 12 and concluded on April 6, 1930. This pivotal journey symbolized the fight against the salt law and was part of a broader strategy to mobilize the Indian populace against British rule.

On March 11, 1930, Mahatma Gandhi was arrested, an event that was reported by American journalist Wav Mirra in the New Freeman newspaper. This arrest occurred during the Civil Disobedience Movement in India, which was marked by significant protests and resistance against British rule.

The Lal Kurti Movement, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, also known as the 'Frontier Gandhi', took place in the North-West Frontier Province in 1930. Ghaffar Khan, who was also referred to as Badshah Khan or Fakhr-e-Afghan, organized this movement through his Khilafat organization, which was characterized by its members wearing red shirts. The movement was closely linked to the broader Civil Disobedience Movement in India.

The Civil Disobedience Movement unfolded in two phases. The first phase began on March 12, 1930, with Gandhi's Dandi March and concluded on March 5, 1931, following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, which was an agreement between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India. The second phase resumed in January 1932 under the new Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, who suppressed the movement harshly, leading to the arrest of many leaders and the classification of the Congress Party as an illegal organization.

By 1934, the Civil Disobedience Movement was officially concluded. Subhas Chandra Bose criticized Gandhi's decision to end the movement, stating that it undermined the efforts made over the past thirteen years. The movement's suppression and eventual end marked a significant moment in India's struggle for independence.

The discussion also touched upon the Round Table Conferences, which were crucial in the context of the Civil Disobedience Movement. The first phase of the movement was initiated with the Dandi March on March 12, 1930, and involved various regional leaders, including C. Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu and the JRL movement in Manipur, as well as the Lal Pulti movement led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan in the North-West Frontier Province.

The discussion centers around the Round Table Conferences held between 1930 and 1932, which were crucial for India's political landscape. The conferences were convened to discuss the Simon Commission's report, which was presented in 1928, and aimed to include Indian representatives in the discussions regarding the Government of India Act. Three conferences were organized in London in 1930, 1931, and 1932, leading to significant developments in Indian governance.

The First Round Table Conference took place from November 1930 to January 1931 at St. James's Palace in London. Its primary purpose was to discuss the Simon Commission's report. The conference was inaugurated by King George V and chaired by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. A total of 89 members participated, including 57 representatives from British India, 16 from princely states, and 16 from Britain. Notably, the Indian National Congress boycotted this conference.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar represented the Dalit community and demanded separate electorates for Dalits during the conference. This demand was later recognized in the Communal Award of 1932. The Muslim League also sought increased representation for Muslims, advocating for a larger separate electorate. The discussions highlighted the complexities of representation in the evolving political landscape of India.

The outcomes of the Round Table Conferences culminated in the Government of India Act of 1935, which established a federal structure in India. The Act abolished the dyarchy introduced by the Government of India Act of 1919 and introduced a dual government system at the center, creating separate legislative bodies, namely the Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha. This marked a significant shift in the governance of India, laying the groundwork for future political developments.

The discussion highlights the establishment of three lists under the Government of India Act of 1935: the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List. This structure was a result of the conclusions drawn from the First Round Table Conference, emphasizing the need for a clear division of powers between the central and state governments.

On March 5, 1931, Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin reached an agreement in Delhi, known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. This pact was significant as it marked the Congress's decision to end the Civil Disobedience Movement and participate in the Second Round Table Conference, following their absence from the First Round Table Conference.

The Second Round Table Conference took place in 1931 at St. James's Palace in London, attended by British Prime Minister and King George V. The Viceroy of India at the time was Lord Irwin. This conference was crucial for discussing India's constitutional future and involved various Indian leaders representing different communities.

During the Second Round Table Conference, Mahatma Gandhi represented the Congress, while Dr. B.R. Ambedkar represented the Dalits, and Sarojini Naidu represented Indian women. Other notable figures included Madan Mohan Malaviya and Tej Bahadur Sapru. The conference aimed to address communal representation, but Gandhi opposed Ambedkar's demand for separate electorates for Scheduled Castes, leading to tensions.

The Second Round Table Conference ultimately failed to achieve its objectives, primarily due to disagreements over communal representation. Following this, Gandhi returned to India, where the communal award was announced by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, which further fueled tensions between communities and led to the Poona Pact between Gandhi and Ambedkar.

A significant gathering took place where notable figures such as Madan Mohan Malviya, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, and G.D. Birla were present. The meeting was marked by a disagreement between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Ambedkar regarding the representation of Dalits in electoral politics.

Dr. Ambedkar advocated for separate electorates for Dalits during the first Round Table Conference, which Gandhi opposed, arguing that it would create a rift within Hindu society. This disagreement led Gandhi to return to India and initiate the second phase of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

In 1932, upon Gandhi's return to India, Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award, granting separate electoral rights to Dalits, similar to those of Muslims and Sikhs. This decision was influenced by the recommendations of the Lothian Committee, which had been established to address electoral representation.

Gandhi opposed the Communal Award, fearing it would perpetuate the status of Dalits as untouchables. He began a hunger strike in Yerwada Jail to protest against the separate electorates, emphasizing that such a division would hinder the social integration of Dalits.

A compromise was reached between Gandhi and Dr. Ambedkar, known as the Poona Pact, in September 1932. This agreement abolished separate electorates for Dalits but allowed for reserved seats in legislative bodies, ensuring that all communities could vote in these elections.

Following the Poona Pact, Gandhi focused on uplifting Dalits and established the All India Anti-Untouchability League and the Harijan Sevak Sangh on September 31, 1932. The Harijan Sevak Sangh aimed to promote the welfare of Dalits, with Ghanshyam Das Birla as its president.

The third Round Table Conference took place without participation from the Congress Party or the Muslim League, although Dr. Ambedkar and Tej Bahadur Sapru attended. This conference led to the issuance of a White Paper and the eventual enactment of the Government of India Act 1935.

The Government of India Act 1935 had a profound impact on the Indian Constitution, with approximately 200 articles being derived from this Act. This period marked a significant evolution in India's political landscape from 1930 to 1935, encompassing major events like the Civil Disobedience Movement and the Poona Pact.

The Government of India Act was passed in 1935, marking a significant legislative development in British India. Following this, the discussion shifted to the provincial elections of 1937.

In 1937, provincial elections were held across 11 states in India. The Indian National Congress emerged as the largest party, securing a clear majority in five states, while forming coalition governments in three others. Consequently, Congress established governments in eight out of the eleven states, while the Muslim League also gained representation.

The demand for Pakistan was formally presented by the Muslim League on March 23, 1940. This demand was rooted in earlier discussions, notably the 1930 session of the Muslim League in Allahabad, chaired by Muhammad Iqbal, which advocated for a separate state based on religious identity. The term 'Pakistan' was coined by Chaudhry Rahmat Ali in 1933, encompassing regions such as Punjab, Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Balochistan.

On August 8, 1940, the August Proposal was introduced by the British government, amidst the backdrop of World War II. The proposal aimed to secure Indian support for the war effort by promising dominion status post-war and the establishment of a constituent assembly. However, it was met with resistance from both the Congress and the Muslim League, leading to its rejection, particularly due to the League's insistence on a separate Pakistan.

On October 17, 1940, Mahatma Gandhi initiated the Individual Satyagraha from the Pavanar Ashram in Maharashtra. The first satyagrahi was Vinoba Bhave, followed by Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahma Datt. This movement aimed to assert the demand for India's independence, with the rallying cry of 'Delhi Chalo' symbolizing the urgency of the struggle.

The British government, under Prime Minister Winston Churchill, sent the Cripps Mission to India on March 23, 1942, led by Stafford Cripps. The mission aimed to persuade Indians by offering dominion status and the formation of a constituent assembly. However, it was rejected by Indian leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, who referred to it as a 'post-dated check' due to its inadequacies.

The Quit India Movement, also known as the August Revolution, was initiated on August 8, 1942, by Mahatma Gandhi and marked the last major movement for India's independence before 1947. The movement was a response to the failure of the Cripps Mission, rising inflation due to World War II, and fears of a Japanese invasion. Key events included a proposal passed in Wardha on July 14, 1942, and a significant session held in Mumbai on August 7, 1942.

On August 9, 1942, as the Quit India Movement escalated, the British government launched Operation Zero Hour, which involved the arrest of major Congress leaders to suppress the movement. Despite these arrests, activists like Usha Mehta and G.P. Narayan continued to lead the movement, demonstrating the resilience of the Indian populace against British rule.

During the special session of Congress in Mumbai on August 7, 1942, Mahatma Gandhi proposed the Quit India Movement, emphasizing the need for immediate action against British rule. The slogan 'Do or Die' was introduced, and a 13-point program was presented to mobilize the masses. The movement officially commenced at the Gwalior Tank Maidan in Mumbai on August 8, 1942, under the leadership of Abdul Kalam Azad.

The underground movement was led by Arun Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta, Ram Manohar Lohia, and Jay Prakash Narayan, continuing until November 1942. Key figures such as Mahatma Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu, Kasturba Gandhi, and Bhuvabhai Desai were imprisoned in the Akhan Palace, while Jawaharlal Nehru was detained in Almora, and other Congress members were held in Ahmednagar.

Mahatma Gandhi undertook a fast, leading to his release on June 6, 1944. This marked the second phase of the movement, which transitioned from the Civil Disobedience Movement to the Quit India Movement.

From 1942 to 1947, significant events unfolded in India, particularly related to the constitution. The release of Gandhi signified the impending independence of India, but the demand for a separate nation by the Muslim League posed a challenge.

On July 10, 1944, C. Rajagopalachari proposed a plan to prevent partition, known as the Rajagopalachari Formula. This was followed by an agreement between Desai and Liaquat Ali on June 14, 1945, and the Wavell Plan was introduced by Lord Wavell.

In 1946, the Cabinet Mission arrived in India, leading to the formation of the Constituent Assembly in July 1946. On August 16, 1946, the Muslim League organized Direct Action Day to push for the demand of Pakistan.

An interim government was formed in 1946, and on February 20, 1947, it was announced that India would be granted independence. The Mountbatten Plan was presented on June 3, 1947, leading to the creation of two new countries, India and Pakistan, with India achieving independence on August 15, 1947.

The discussion highlighted two major events: the naval mutiny in 1945 and the trial of the Azad Hind Fauj at the Red Fort. These events were crucial in the context of India's struggle for independence, alongside the Cabinet Mission's role in forming the Constituent Assembly.

The Azad Hind Fauj was established in 1942 by Subhas Chandra Bose, with its headquarters in Singapore. Bose resigned from the Congress after the Tripuri session in 1939 and founded the Forward Bloc. He was imprisoned in Calcutta in July 1940 and later escaped to Germany in 1941.

In June 1942, Subhas Chandra Bose met Adolf Hitler, who conferred upon him the title of 'Netaji'. Following this, Bose established the Indian National Army (INA) in Germany, which later moved to Japan. Under the leadership of Raj Bihari Bose, the Bank of India Independence Conference was held, leading to the formation of the Azad Hind Fauj (INA) in June 1942.

In July 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose was appointed as the Supreme Commander of the Azad Hind Fauj. By October 1943, he advanced the Azad Hind Government and the INA in Singapore, declaring war with the rallying cry 'Dilli Chalo' and promising freedom in exchange for sacrifice, stating 'Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom'.

In November 1943, the INA was recognized in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, where Bose established Shahid and Swaraj Islands, which were later renamed by Prime Minister Modi. On July 8, 1944, a musical broadcast was made from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and on September 22, 1944, Shahid Diwas was celebrated.

Subhas Chandra Bose passed away on August 18, 1945. Following his death, the Azad Hind Fauj surrendered, leading to the British government initiating trials against INA soldiers, particularly targeting Shah Nawaz Khan, Karanal Prem Sehgal, and Karanal Gurbaksh Singh in 1945.

The trials against INA soldiers, known as the Red Fort Trials, sparked widespread protests across India, with the slogan 'Break the Red Fort, Free the Azad Hind Fauj' becoming popular. The Indian National Congress formed a committee to defend the INA soldiers, which included prominent lawyers like Bhulabhai Desai, Jawaharlal Nehru, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju, and Arun Asaf Ali.

Despite the efforts of the defense committee, the three officers were sentenced to death. However, Lord Wavell used his special powers to commute their sentences. The Red Fort Trials ignited a new wave of nationalism across India.

In February 1946, the Royal Indian Navy mutiny occurred in Bombay, where Indian sailors aboard the ship Talwar protested against discrimination. This uprising was significant as it highlighted the growing discontent among Indian soldiers against British rule. Although Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel intervened to quell the mutiny, it marked a pivotal moment in India's struggle for independence.

These events, including the Red Fort Trials and the naval mutiny, contributed to the momentum leading to India's independence in 1947, marking a significant chapter in modern Indian history.

The speaker mentions that a PDF description is available via a Google Drive link provided in the box, which contains important details about the society and other facts that students should read at home. They emphasize the importance of studying these materials thoroughly and preparing for the upcoming MCQs.

The speaker has completed the history section and encourages students to work hard on the MCQs. They announce that the next session will focus on the topic of 'Ayogee' and express gratitude to the audience, hoping they enjoyed the series. They invite students to join the Unacademy Telegram channel for class notifications and to connect with Shubham Gupta's channel for additional resources related to the MPPSC Mains 2020 preparation.

The speaker urges students to take their preparation for the MPPSC exam seriously, which is scheduled for April 11, 2020. They mention that a significant unit has been completed and encourage students to focus on their studies, reminding them to take care and work hard.

The speaker welcomes students to the Unacademy platform, specifically the 'Unacademy Abhiyan' channel, where they are preparing for the MPPSC 2020 exam. They confirm that the modern Indian history syllabus has been completed and highlight a small chapter on 'Reorganization and Integration of India after Independence' that needs to be covered before moving on to the next unit.

The speaker reiterates the importance of joining the Unacademy Abhiyan Telegram channel and Shubham Gupta's channel for class links and PDFs. They inform students that they will resume live classes for the MPPSC main exam preparation on April 16, 2020, and encourage them to join the Unacademy application for further learning.

The speaker provides details about the subscription for the Unacademy platform, stating that a two-year subscription costs ₹12,800. However, using the code 'CG LIVE' will reduce the price to ₹11,500, making it more accessible for students preparing for the MPPSC and Vyapam exams.

The discussion begins with a focus on the relevance of the current topic in the syllabus, emphasizing the importance of understanding why this topic is being studied. The speaker mentions that the next topic will be the Election Commission of India, indicating a structured approach to the syllabus.

The speaker introduces the topic of 'Reorganization and Integration of India after Independence,' outlining a three-part structure for the discussion. The first part will cover the timeline of India's reorganization, followed by a focus on the princely states, and concluding with the reorganization of states. The terms 'reorganization' and 'integration' are defined, highlighting their significance in the context of India's independence.

On August 15, 1947, India gained independence, resulting in three distinct entities: India, Pakistan, and the princely states. The speaker explains that the princely states were small regions still under the rule of local kings, which had been allowed to remain independent after the British abandoned their policy of merger following the 1857 revolt. Examples of princely states such as Bhopal, Hyderabad, and Kashmir are provided to illustrate this point.

Upon gaining independence, the princely states were presented with three options: to join India, to join Pakistan, or to remain independent. The speaker emphasizes the potential chaos that could have ensued if the 552 princely states chose independence, leading to a fragmented map of India. The discussion highlights the significant challenge of integrating these states into a unified India, which was crucial for national stability.

The primary challenge faced by India post-independence was the integration of the princely states into the Indian Union. The speaker reiterates the importance of the term 'integration,' which signifies the process of unifying these diverse entities into a single nation. This integration was essential to prevent the emergence of multiple independent regions within India, which could have destabilized the newly formed country.

The discussion begins with the integration of India, focusing on how Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon played crucial roles in incorporating 552 princely states into India. This process, referred to as 'integration', was essential for unifying the nation after independence.

Following the integration, the speaker explains the concept of 'reorganization', which involved restructuring the states within India. Initially, the states were not organized as they are today, leading to demands for separate states based on linguistic and cultural identities, such as the Telugu and Gujarati communities seeking autonomy from Tamil and Marathi speakers.

The speaker highlights significant events in the reorganization process, including the establishment of the S.K. Dhar Commission and the J.P. Commission. A notable moment occurred on October 1, 1953, when Andhra Pradesh was formed as the first state based on linguistic lines, igniting further demands for statehood across India.

Under the leadership of Fazal Ali, the State Reorganization Commission was formed to address the growing demands for statehood. This commission ultimately led to the creation of 14 states and 6 Union Territories, reshaping the political landscape of India.

The speaker notes the evolution of states in India, mentioning that the number of states increased to 29 and later adjusted back to 28, reflecting the dynamic nature of state formation and reorganization in the country.

The discussion transitions to a timeline of events, starting from India's independence on August 15, 1947, when the country was partitioned into India and Pakistan. At that time, there were 562 princely states, with 552 states falling within India's geographical boundaries, each given the option to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent.

In India, the reorganization of states began after the integration of princely states by V.P. Menon and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. This led to demands for restructuring states based on language, culminating in the formation of a commission in June 1948 by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, chaired by retired judge S.K. Dhananjay. The commission recommended against language-based reorganization, suggesting instead that states should be reorganized based on administrative convenience.

In response to the growing movement for language-based states, the Congress party formed another committee, known as the JP Committee, which included prominent leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and P. Subbarayan. This committee also concluded that states should not be formed based on language, further intensifying the movement, especially in South India.

The demand for a separate state for Telugu speakers intensified after India's independence, particularly in the region that was previously part of Tamil Nadu. Telugu speakers argued for their distinct language and culture. Despite the recommendations of the Dhananjay Commission and the JP Committee against language-based states, the movement gained momentum, especially after the hunger strike of Potti Sriramulu, who fasted for 58 days, ultimately leading to his death.

Following the death of Potti Sriramulu, which sparked widespread protests, the Indian government, under pressure, decided on October 1, 1953, to create a new state for Telugu speakers, named Andhra Pradesh. This marked the establishment of the first state in India based on language, setting a precedent for further demands for state reorganization across the country.

The Government establishes the State Reorganization Commission under the chairmanship of Fazal Ali, which recognizes that states can be formed based on language. However, it emphasizes two critical considerations: the unity of India must not be compromised, and there should be no administrative dysfunction. The commission's recommendations lead to the creation of 14 states and 6 Union Territories, necessitating the 7th Constitutional Amendment and the passage of the State Reorganization Act. Over time, the number of states increases to 29, and recently, it has been reduced to 28, shaping the map of India.

Post-independence, India faced the challenge of integrating 552 princely states. Key figures like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon played pivotal roles in this process, successfully integrating most states into India. However, three significant states—Hyderabad, Kashmir, and Junagadh—presented challenges. The Nizam of Hyderabad sought to join Pakistan, the Sultan of Junagadh also favored Pakistan, and the Maharaja of Kashmir wished to remain independent. The integration of these states required strategic efforts, including military action in Kashmir following an invasion by Pakistan, a referendum in Junagadh, and Operation Polo to incorporate Hyderabad into India.

The Mountbatten Plan, presented on June 3, 1947, was the framework for the partition of India. This plan granted independence to princely states, allowing them three options: to join India, to join Pakistan, or to remain independent. At the time, there were 5,052 princely states within India's geographical boundaries.

To ensure India's unity, the Indian National Congress decided to integrate the princely states into India. This significant task was assigned to Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, who established the Department of Indian Princely States on July 5, 1947. As India's first Home Minister, Patel was responsible for the integration process, appointing V.P. Menon as his secretary, who played a crucial role in this endeavor.

Out of the 5,052 princely states, 5,049 were successfully integrated into India. However, three states—Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir—posed significant challenges. The integration of these states required careful negotiation and resolution of various issues.

Junagadh, located in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat, was ruled by Nawab Rasul Khan, a Muslim leader. Despite the Nawab's desire to join Pakistan, the majority of the population (80% Hindu) wanted to remain part of India. This led to widespread unrest and a movement for integration with India.

In November 1947, the Dewan of Junagadh, Shah Nawaz Bhutto, proposed the state's merger with India. However, the Indian government insisted on conducting a plebiscite to determine the will of the people. Ultimately, in February 1948, a referendum was held, resulting in the majority of Junagadh's population voting to join India.

Junagadh is located in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat, India. It was integrated into India based on a referendum held in February 1948, following the decision of its Nawab, Rasul Khan, and the Dewan, Shah Nawaz Bhutto. The integration was significant as 80% of Junagadh's population was Hindu, making its inclusion in India a logical outcome.

In contrast to Junagadh, the situation in Kashmir was quite different. The ruler, Hari Singh, was Hindu, while 75% of the population was Muslim. Despite the majority's desire to join India, Hari Singh opted for independence. However, this was not feasible due to Kashmir's geographical position between India and Pakistan. In October 1947, following an invasion by Pakistan, Hari Singh sought assistance from India, which was contingent upon signing the Instrument of Accession. On October 26, 1947, he signed this document, leading to Kashmir's integration into India, which was formalized under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution.

Hyderabad was the largest princely state in India at the time, ruled by Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan. The Nizam faced pressure to join Pakistan, which was impractical due to Hyderabad's central location in India. The complexities of Hyderabad's political situation and the Nizam's decisions played a crucial role in its eventual integration into India.

The Nizam of Hyderabad sought to maintain the status quo by signing an agreement with India, effectively delaying the decision on whether to join Pakistan or India. This agreement allowed Hyderabad's boundaries to remain unchanged for one year, during which the Nizam began to strengthen his military forces, known as the Razakars, who subsequently perpetrated violence against the Hindu majority in the region.

In response to the atrocities committed by the Razakars, the Indian government intervened in September 1948, launching Operation Polo to integrate Hyderabad into India. This military action successfully subdued the Nizam's forces, leading to Hyderabad's official incorporation into India by November 1948.

The discussion transitioned to the broader topic of the integration of Indian states, highlighting the historical context beginning from June 3, 1947, when the Mountbatten Plan partitioned India. The Indian princely states were given the choice to join either India, Pakistan, or remain independent. By July 1947, under the leadership of Sardar Patel, the Department of Indian Princely States was established, which successfully integrated 549 out of 552 princely states into India, with notable exceptions being Junagadh and Kashmir, which had their own unique accession processes.

The lecture shifted focus to the Reorganization of India, which involves the formation of states within the country. This reorganization was necessary due to the previous administrative divisions established by the British, which prioritized economic gain over effective governance. The aim was to create a more coherent and functional state structure post-independence.

Following India's independence in 1947, there was a surge in demands for separate states based on language and culture. People from different linguistic backgrounds began to assert their need for distinct states, citing their unique identities and colors. This led to a broader discussion on how states in India should be reorganized.

In response to the growing demands, various committees were established to explore the possibility of reorganizing states based on linguistic lines. The first of these was the S.K. Dhar Committee, formed in June 1948, led by retired judge S.K. Dhar of the Allahabad High Court, with key members including Jagat Narayan and Pannalal.

The S.K. Dhar Committee submitted its report in December 1948, recommending that states should be formed on an administrative basis rather than a linguistic one. This report intensified the movements across India, as leaders like S.K. Dhar and Jawaharlal Nehru feared that creating states based on language could lead to the fragmentation of the nation.

In December 1948, amidst escalating movements, the Congress established the Linguistic Provinces Committee, popularly known as the J.P. Committee, named after its members Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. The committee was tasked with reviewing the S.K. Dhar Committee's findings and assessing the feasibility of creating states based on language.

The J.P. Committee submitted its report in April 1949, echoing the S.K. Dhar Committee's stance that states should not be formed on linguistic grounds. This further fueled the ongoing movements for state reorganization based on language, as the government had already decided against such a basis for state formation.

Despite the government's decision to avoid linguistic-based states, it proceeded to categorize existing states into four parts: Part A included Assam, Bihar, Mumbai, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Odisha, Punjab, United Provinces, and West Bengal; Part B comprised Hyderabad, Kashmir, Central India, Mysore, Patiala, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Travancore, and Vindhya Pradesh; Part C included Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, parts of Bihar, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal, Kutch, Manipur, and Tripura; and Part D contained only the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The demand for a separate state based on language had begun, highlighted by the hunger strike of Potti Sriramulu against the JP Commission's report. He was advocating for the separation of Tamil-speaking and Telugu-speaking populations in the region, specifically calling for the creation of a new state, Andhra Pradesh, for Telugu speakers, separating them from the Madras state.

Following the death of Potti Sriramulu during the hunger strike, which escalated tensions and violence, the Indian government responded by creating Andhra Pradesh on October 1, 1953. This marked the first state in India formed on the basis of language, separating the Telugu-speaking area from the Madras state.

The establishment of Andhra Pradesh sparked movements in other states for the creation of new states based on linguistic lines. In response, the Indian government formed a committee in December 1953, known as the State Reorganization Commission, chaired by Fazal Ali, to address these demands and determine how states should be formed in India.

The State Reorganization Commission, led by Fazal Ali with members K. P. K. Panicker and H. N. Kunzru, worked for nearly two years and presented its report in 1955. The commission concluded that states could indeed be formed on the basis of language, a significant shift from previous recommendations by the Dhar and G.B. Khedkar commissions, which opposed such a basis for state formation.

While the Fazal Ali Commission supported the formation of states based on language, it emphasized the need to consider certain factors to maintain India's integrity. The commission's recommendations were pivotal in shaping the future of state boundaries in India, allowing for linguistic considerations in state formation.

The speaker emphasizes that the unity and integrity of India should not be compromised. There should be no issues affecting the country's integrity and sovereignty, and the formation of states should not lead to a fragmentation of national unity. The focus should be on linguistic and cultural similarities, ensuring administrative convenience and the welfare of all states.

The Fazal Ali Commission's report is highlighted for its significant recommendations regarding the reorganization of Indian states. It suggested abolishing the existing categories of states (Part A, Part B, Part C) and instead proposed a simpler division into states and union territories. The commission recommended dividing India into six states and three union territories, although this specific proposal was not fully accepted.

The impact of the Fazal Ali Commission's recommendations led to the passing of the Seventh Constitutional Amendment Act in 1956. This amendment resulted in the creation of 14 states and 6 union territories, effectively reorganizing the structure of Indian governance. The speaker notes that this amendment is crucial for understanding the reorganization of states in India.

Following the 1956 reorganization, the speaker mentions that the discussion on state formation continues. In November 1954, the French government transferred its territories, including Puducherry, Yanam, Chandernagore, and Karaikal, to India. This transition is part of the broader narrative of state formation and reorganization in India.

The speaker expresses frustration with negative comments from individuals who are not from India, suggesting that these people are likely from Pakistan or other countries. They emphasize that such comments should be ignored, as they come from individuals who are perceived as unsuccessful and lacking integrity. The speaker advises distancing oneself from these 'low-quality' individuals, who seem to derive pleasure from making derogatory remarks.

The speaker discusses the historical transfer of territories from France to India, specifically mentioning Puducherry, Yanam, Chandernagore, and Karaikal, which were once French territories. They clarify that these areas were given to India by France, contrasting this with Goa, Daman, and Diu, which were Portuguese territories. The speaker notes that Goa was integrated into India through a military action, highlighting the complexities of territorial changes in the region.

The speaker outlines the evolution of Indian states, starting with the formation of Andhra Pradesh on October 1, 1953, which was the first state created on a linguistic basis. They detail subsequent state formations, including Gujarat on May 1, 1960, Nagaland on December 1, 1963, and Haryana on November 1, 1966. The establishment of Himachal Pradesh on January 25, 1971, and the creation of Meghalaya, Manipur, and Tripura in 1972 are also mentioned, along with the historical context of Arunachal Pradesh, previously known as the North East Frontier Agency (NEFA). The speaker concludes with the integration of Sikkim into India on April 26, 1975, marking significant milestones in the country's state formation history.

The narrative of Sikkim reveals that until 1947, it was a princely state under British rule. Following the end of British governance in 1947, India provided protection to Sikkim, which was recognized as an adjacent state through the 35th Constitutional Amendment. Subsequently, the 36th Constitutional Amendment in 1975 elevated Sikkim to a full state status.

The discussion highlights the formation of several Indian states post-1975: Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh were established on February 20, 1987, Goa on May 30, 1987, Chhattisgarh separated from Madhya Pradesh on November 1, 2000, Uttarakhand on November 9, 2000, and Jharkhand on November 15, 2000. Additionally, Telangana was formed on June 2, 2014, and Jammu and Kashmir's statehood was revoked, converting it into two Union Territories: Jammu and Ladakh.

Currently, India comprises 28 states and 8 Union Territories. The merger of Dadra and Nagar Haveli with Daman and Diu is noted, along with the reclassification of Jammu and Kashmir into Union Territories. The speaker also mentions the renaming of several states, such as the transformation of the United Provinces into Uttar Pradesh, Madras into Tamil Nadu, and Mysore into Karnataka.

The speaker elaborates on the renaming of regions in India, including the establishment of the National Capital Region (NCR) in 1982, the renaming of Uttaranchal to Uttarakhand in 2006, Puducherry from Pondicherry, and Odisha from Orissa in 2011. This reflects the ongoing process of state integration and reorganization in India.

The speaker expresses hope that the unit covered was enjoyable and informative, encouraging students to solve more multiple-choice questions. They announce the commencement of the 10th unit, focusing on the Election Commission of India, with an initial discussion on the nature and strategies of commissions.

The speaker invites students to use a specific code for accessing special classes on the Unacademy platform, which also offers a 10% discount on subscriptions. They conclude the session with gratitude and an invitation for further discussion.