Aristotle's Philosophy: Essence, Substance, and Ethics

Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Macedonia in 384 BC. He lived until 322 BC. At the age of 17, Aristotle went to Athens to complete his studies at Plato's Academy, where he studied for around 20 years. He was a close friend of Nicomachus, a physician, and the son of King Amyntas III of Macedonia.

Plato believed in the existence of two separate realms: the world of ideas or intelligible world, and the sensible world or material world. Aristotle, on the other hand, believed in a single reality where the essence of things was inherent in the things themselves. Plato emphasized reason for true knowledge, while Aristotle preferred experimentation with real objects.

Aristotle posited that knowledge begins with sensory experience, leading to the generation of ideas through intellect and reason. He believed that ideas are revealed after a sensory experience, contrary to Plato's view that true knowledge is attained through reason alone.

The painting 'School of Athens' by Raphael Sanzio illustrates the contrast between Plato and Aristotle's philosophies. Plato is depicted pointing upwards, symbolizing the world of ideas, while Aristotle's hand is shown facing downwards, representing the value of earthly life and the belief that knowledge is found in the world we inhabit.

After leaving Plato's Academy, Aristotle returned to Macedonia and became the mentor of Alexander the Great, son of King Philip II. In 334 BC, Aristotle founded his own philosophical school in Athens, known as the Lyceum. His school gained prominence and was influential in the philosophical landscape of the time.

Aristotle made significant contributions to the study of logic, introducing three logical principles: the principle of identity, the principle of non-contradiction, and the principle of the excluded middle. These principles form the basis of Aristotelian logic, which is used in syllogism, a model of reasoning composed of two premises leading to a conclusion.

Aristotle's logical principles include the principle of identity (an entity is always identical to itself), the principle of non-contradiction (a statement cannot be true and false simultaneously), and the principle of the excluded middle (something either is or is not, with no third option). These principles are fundamental in Aristotelian logic and help in deriving logical conclusions.

A key aspect of Aristotle's philosophy is metaphysics, also known as first philosophy. Metaphysics delves into the study of the structure and foundations of reality, encompassing all existing objects and seeking to understand what defines their essence and existence. Aristotle's metaphysics explores the different modes of existence of beings and their forms of existence.

Aristotle introduced essential concepts such as matter and form, act and potency, essence and accident, and substance. According to Aristotle, all things consist of matter and form, where matter is the substance that constitutes an object and form is its defining essence. Act represents the current state of being, while potency signifies the potential to become. These concepts are crucial in understanding the composition and existence of beings.

Barro has the potential to transform into various objects like a jar, a pot, or a sculpture. When Barro transforms, it gains a distinct form that sets it apart from other existing things. This new form represents its actuality, such as becoming a jar.

Aristotle explains the concept of matter and form using the example of a 20-year-old person who is young in actuality but potentially older. He defines matter as the body composed of cells forming tissues, organs, and systems, while form is the soul responsible for rationality, sensations, movement, and basic life functions.

Aristotle contrasts Plato's view on ideas by stating that ideas are abstracted from beings through inductive thinking. He emphasizes that to understand a concept like a cat, one must observe real cats and separate matter and form to grasp only the form or idea of a cat.

Aristotle introduces the concepts of essence, accident, and substance. Essence refers to essential characteristics defining a being, while accident denotes particular properties that do not alter the essence. Substance encompasses physical and metaphysical aspects, representing the union of matter, form, essence, accident, actuality, and potentiality.

Aristotle identifies four causes essential for the existence and movement of beings: material cause (raw material), formal cause (shape or essence), efficient cause (creator agent), and final cause (purpose). These causes explain the transition from potentiality to actuality and the conditions necessary for existence.

Aristotle posits that the universe is eternal, without a beginning or end. He introduces the concept of the unmoved mover to explain the origin of the first movement in the universe, attributing it to a divine being that initiated the motion leading to the cosmos we observe.

Aristotle proposed the concept of the first motor as an absolutely perfect, immovable act that is the primary cause of all movement in the universe. This first motor, considered as pure act and perfection, functions as the final cause of the world, despite being known as the Aristotelian God. It is a philosophical and metaphysical concept aimed at explaining the origin of the universe.

Aristotle delved into ethics, defining it as the study of human behavior, actions, choices, and values. He emphasized that human actions aim at achieving happiness, termed as eudaimonia. Happiness is attainable through virtuous actions, which involve acting moderately and with good sense. Aristotle highlighted the importance of courage, which is the balance between fear and recklessness, as a virtue that enables individuals to face challenges thoughtfully and rationally.

Aristotle believed that acting virtuously, particularly with courage, requires the use of reason. He argued that human uniqueness lies in our ability to think and reason about our actions, guiding us towards virtuous living. Living in accordance with reason leads to a virtuous life and ultimately to happiness, as reason directs individuals towards ethical behavior.

Aristotle intertwined ethics with politics, viewing ethics as an individual value and politics as a collective pursuit of the common good. He asserted that humans are inherently political beings, meant to live in communities to achieve happiness. Aristotle considered cities as natural creations where true happiness could be found, emphasizing the importance of communal living for human fulfillment.

Aristotle categorized forms of government based on quantity and quality, identifying monarchy, aristocracy, and polity (constitutional government) as ideal forms. He warned that these forms could deteriorate into corrupt versions like tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy when rulers prioritize personal interests over the common good. Aristotle favored polity (republic) as the most suitable form of government, where citizens take turns governing democratically for the collective well-being.