The Reign of Trujillo in the Dominican Republic: A Historical Overview

The massacre of over 15,000 Haitians in October 1937 led to the first international crisis for the Trujillo dictatorship. In response to pressure from influential figures like Hamilton Fitch, Trujillo negotiated a resolution with Haiti, agreeing to pay an initial indemnity of $750,000, later reduced to $550,000 through bribery.

In May 1938, Trujillo decided not to run for president and instead proposed Jacinto Peynado as the presidential candidate and Manuel de Jesús Troncoso de la Concha as the vice-presidential candidate. The elections, with only Trujillo's party participating, resulted in a 100% vote in favor of Trujillo's candidates, solidifying his control over the government.

Following the 1938 elections, Jacinto Peynado became the first puppet president under Trujillo's control. Trujillo established the practice of having a subordinate hold the title of president while he retained actual power, effectively controlling the country from behind the scenes.

In 1938, an international conference in Evian announced Trujillo's willingness to accept 100,000 Jewish refugees in the Dominican Republic. Trujillo charged a group of Jewish businessmen from New York $1 million for the refugees' settlement. The first 750 Jewish refugees arrived in May 1940 and were settled in Sosúa near Puerto Plata.

Starting in November 1939, Spanish Republican exiles began arriving in Santo Domingo, with around 4,000 intellectuals, artists, and politicians seeking refuge by early 1940. These exiles would later have a significant impact on the social, political, and cultural life of the Dominican Republic.

President Jacinto Peynado passed away on March 7, 1940, at the Marion Hospital. His death marked the transition to a new phase in Dominican politics, with Trujillo's influence continuing to shape the country's leadership and direction.

Vice President Licenciado Manuel de Jesús Troncoso de la Concha announced the appointment of General Héctor Bienvenido Trujillo Molina as the new Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. This appointment signified a continuation of the previous regime's policies under the dictatorship of Trujillo.

In January 1942, the Constitutional Review Assembly made significant changes, including extending the presidential term from four to five years, abolishing the Vice Presidency, and recognizing women's civil rights. These changes aimed to consolidate power and influence within the existing political structure.

The 1942 national elections saw a turnout of 581,937 voters, with the Party Dominicano winning by the same number of votes cast. Following the elections, there were calls for Trujillo to assume the presidency immediately, leading to his inauguration for the 1942-1947 term.

Licenciado Manuel de Jesús Troncoso de la Concha resigned from his position, allowing Trujillo to be sworn in as the constitutional president for the 1942-1947 term. Troncoso de la Concha praised the democratic spectacle of the 1942 elections as a significant moment in Dominican history.

In February 1944, the Dominican Republic celebrated its centennial with a series of events known as the Centennial Festivities. These events commemorated 100 years since the founding of the republic, showcasing the regime's efforts to highlight national pride and historical significance.

The speaker, a great master, delivers a powerful speech emphasizing the importance of the nation's history and the need to strive for excellence. He mentions the significance of historical figures and the sacrifices made for the country, urging the audience to offer their deepest thoughts and experiences. The speaker expresses a commitment to do more for the nation and the people, highlighting the patriotic duty to work towards peace and progress.

The speaker reflects on the concept of patriotism and the role of individuals in shaping the nation's future. He emphasizes that the country's history is not just a record of past events but also a narrative of ongoing contributions and achievements. The speaker underscores the importance of creating a legacy for future generations and the need to preserve the nation's historical and spiritual heritage.

The speaker shares a vision for the future, highlighting the role of faith and hard work in achieving progress. He acknowledges the challenges faced by brave and idealistic people, emphasizing the importance of patriotism and a Christian approach to serving humanity. The speaker emphasizes that the future begins in the present, urging action and commitment to building a better tomorrow.

On August 15, 1938, the new port of Santo Domingo was inaugurated, significantly boosting national and international trade. The old port's limitations in accommodating deep-draft vessels restricted commerce, prompting the construction of the new port. The project was overseen by Puerto Rican engineer Félix Benítez Rexach, who received the Duarte Order for his contributions.

The outbreak of World War II in September 1939 led to a surge in Dominican exports due to increased international prices. This economic boom resulted in substantial budget increases for the state. In response, the dictatorship acquired the New York branch of the National City Bank and established the Dominican Republic's Reserve Bank. The official currency was changed to the Dominican peso in 1947, replacing the US dollar. Additionally, Trujillo personally paid off the country's external debt of $9,271,855.55 in July 1947, signaling a significant financial milestone for the nation.

Trujillo, with a patriotic obsession to rescue the country from financial servitude, dedicated himself to industrialization and urban development. As mayor of Santo Domingo in the 1940s, Modesto Díaz oversaw a vast urban remodeling program. Trujillo's industrialization efforts from 1945 to the 1950s included building over 50 industries, particularly in agriculture. The capital invested in industrial sectors grew significantly from 1936 to 1955, reaching 201 million 491,411 pesos.

Trujillo, known for his extraordinary energy, work capacity, and manipulative skills, crafted an image of a strong leader that the Dominican citizens unconsciously desired for protection. Described as physically and mentally agile, with a natural acumen for cunning, Trujillo's pursuit of power was fueled by a practical mindset and previous deprivations. His belief in the power of money, viewing it as essential for governance, led him to carry large sums of Dominican and American currency, managing finances with military precision.

Trujillo's personality exhibited traits of megalomania, egotism, and a deep need for adulation. His manipulation of power through money, rigorous financial management, and a relentless pursuit of control reflected a complex character driven by a thirst for power and recognition. His understanding of the value of money, coupled with an insatiable desire for flattery, hinted at deeper insecurities and a growing sense of self-importance.

Trujillo's energy and ambition in politics were fueled by his vanity and love for flattery. He had an incredible work ethic, rising at 4 am daily to read the morning newspaper and be informed about recent events in the country and worldwide. Despite being nervous, he maintained a calm demeanor, listening attentively with his expressive black eyes and famous inscrutable smile.

Trujillo's presence was imposing due to his personal magnetism, unrelated to his physical attractiveness or manners. He had a collection of over 10,000 ties, around 2,000 suits and uniforms, and 500 pairs of shoes. His excessive ambition extended to collecting women as objects of power, alongside ties, shoes, and suits.

Trujillo's power not only repressed but also seduced. He used his political force to dominate and charm women, creating a complex link between feelings of powerlessness, fear, rebellion, and sexual desire. Women, drawn by the allure of power, found themselves entangled in a web of domination and desire.

Trujillo showed little regard for the suffering of his people, focusing on material progress like the construction of houses rather than the actual happiness of the population. He instilled fear in his compatriots by orchestrating public displays of violence, such as hanging bodies in public places to maintain control through terror.

Several towns have reported cases where unidentified bodies were found, with no identification on the corpses and no recognition from locals. It is believed that the government's practice involves committing murders in one location and then depositing the bodies elsewhere.

By the mid-1940s, the situation for the working class had reached critical levels. The relationship between wages and the cost of daily consumer goods revealed the severe exploitation faced by these sectors. Skilled workers like electricians or mechanics earned around 1.50 pesos per day, while unskilled laborers like dockworkers and agricultural workers earned only 60 cents a day.

Trujillo implemented a dictatorial system of exploitation through forced labor camps, where people were made to work without any pay. The army conducted raids across the country, detaining individuals without permanent employment for vagrancy. These detainees were then sent to prison and subsequently to forced labor camps, resulting in the loss of around ten thousand Dominican lives.

In recent years, significant union activity had been observed in San Pedro de Macorís and La Romana. This activity was tolerated by Trujillo due to his unfavorable international position, disagreements with American-owned sugar companies, and the cautious approach of union leaders who avoided direct confrontation with Trujillo's regime.

In January 1946, sugar workers in La Romana and San Pedro de Macorís organized a successful indefinite strike demanding higher wages, an 8-hour workday, and other rights. The strike, which lasted over a week and paralyzed the eastern provinces, led to negotiations between the dictatorship and union leaders, resulting in concessions for the workers.

After the strike, the dictatorship initiated a repressive wave against the labor movement, resulting in the assassination of several leaders and the exile of others, including some who sought refuge in the Mexican embassy. Trujillo then took control of the unions, forcing them to join the Dominican Workers Confederation, which he controlled through Francisco Prats Ramírez Arias.

Mauricio Báez, born in 1910 in Palenque, San Cristóbal, was a courageous and incorruptible man who played a significant role in the labor movement. He organized various labor unions, eventually founding the Local Labor Federation, which united around 30 worker guilds in the province. Báez earned the trust and respect of Eastern workers through his unwavering defense of their rights, despite facing imprisonment and exile multiple times.

On December 8, 1950, Mauricio Báez was abducted from his home in Havana, Cuba, by undercover agents serving Trujillo. His disappearance remains a mystery, symbolizing the dangers faced by those who opposed the dictatorship.

A strong earthquake in 1946 caused significant damage in Boca San Francisco and Nagua, with the village of Matanzas being swept away by the sea. Following this disaster, the Dominican Revolutionary Democratic Party, later transformed into the Popular Socialist Party, emerged publicly, aligning with Cuban communists and exiled Dominicans in Havana.

Two weeks after the earthquake, the Popular Socialist Party, led by figures like Freddy Valdez, Roberto Makabe, and Mauricio Báez, held public meetings in parks, drawing thousands of attendees. The party faced police brutality during one gathering, leading to international attention and eventual release of detainees. Additionally, the Youth Democratic Group, mainly composed of university students, became active in advocating for democratic ideals.

Virgilio Díaz Grullón, Alfredo D'Hebron, José Ramón Martínez Burgos, José Manuel de Peña González, Carmen Natalia Martínez, Víctor Villegas, Rafael Moore Garrido, Mario Sánchez Córdoba, Arzeno Brugal, Pedro Alfredo Brito, Berio Castellanos, Alfonso Moreno Martínez, and others were part of the militancy of Juventud Democrática. On October 30, 1946, the US Naval Intelligence Division in Havana sent a confidential report to the State Department regarding Trujillo's internal politics, mentioning his strategy of playing cat and mouse with communists to later crack down on them.

In March 1947, the US government announced its policy against communism in Europe. Three months later, Trujillo banned communism by law, ordered the destruction of PSP and Juventud Democrática premises, and arrested most of their members under the guise of anti-communism. This led to the exile or assassination of numerous organization members.

In the May 1947 elections, Trujillo orchestrated a theatrical display of democracy to appease international critics. Three parties participated with equal presidential candidates: Partido Nacional Laborista, Partido Nacional Democrático, and Partido Dominicano. Trujillo, as the candidate for Partido Dominicano, allegedly received 781,389 out of 840,340 votes cast, over 90% of the total.

Amid post-war democratic sentiments, Trujillo faced opposition from governments like Rómulo Betancourt in Venezuela, Juan José Arévalo in Guatemala, Ramón Grau San Martín in Cuba, and Scott in Haiti. The United Front for Dominican Liberation was established after a unifying congress in exile, with Ángel Morales as president. Efforts were made to seek military assistance against Trujillo from democratic Caribbean governments.

In July 1947, after Rafael Trujillo's rise to power in the Dominican Republic, de la Vega went into exile and led expedition plans from Havana. Jose Manuel Alemán, the Minister of Education under the government of Ground, acted as the liaison between Dominican exiles and the Cuban government. Manolo Castro, the director of sports and a leader of the Movimiento Socialista Revolucionario (MSR), spearheaded the recruitment of Cuban volunteers for the expedition. The expedition formed an army of over a thousand men, including veterans from the Spanish Civil War and World War II.

On July 13, 1947, the exiles elected a central committee to oversee the expedition. The committee included Juan Rodríguez García, Ángel Morales, Juan Bosch Jiménez, and Leovigildo Cuello. Days later, the expeditionaries departed from Havana to the Polytechnic of Holguín in eastern Cuba for military training.

Upon learning of the invasion plans from Cuban territory, Trujillo initiated diplomatic protests against the Cuban government. With the imminent departure of the expedition, Trujillo threatened to bomb Havana once the first invader set foot in the Dominican territory. The U.S. government pressured President Grau San Martín to halt the military action against Trujillo.

By September, the expedition had four ships, thirteen planes, and 1200 armed men, including notable figures like Fidel Castro, Carlos Gutiérrez Menoyo, and Pedro Mir. The expeditionaries anticipated equipping the planes with combat weapons for the invasion of Santo Domingo, with General Que 9º Pérez Dámera of the Cuban army seeking support from Washington, D.C.

Several days after the service in Trujillo, Perez Damera proceeded to confiscate a shipment of weapons from the estate of Minister Jose Manuel Aleman and intervened in the premises that the Cayo Confites expeditionaries had at the Hotel Sevilla. Concurrently, the American ambassador in Cuba urged American aviators involved in Cayo Confites to return to the United States, leading to their compliance and return.

On September 21, 1947, the Cayo Confites expeditionaries decided to leave the cay upon hearing about the raid at Hotel Sevilla and rumors of a potential army rebellion against the government. Following confusion among the expeditionary ships and skirmishes with the Cuban navy, the expeditionaries were forced to disembark at the port of Antillas, where they were arrested, disarmed, and taken to the military compound of Columbia in Havana.

While imprisoned in Columbia, Con Vos declared a hunger strike until all expeditionaries were released. After an agreement between General Perez Damera and One Box, the prisoners were freed, and the movement leaders began negotiations with the Cuban government to recover the confiscated weapons.

In early 1948, through a secret operation, the weapons were transferred to Guatemala, where some Cayo Confites men resumed plans to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow Trujillo. Troops led by General Juancito Rodriguez were divided into three contingents, each with a specific entry point into the country.

On June 19, 1949, while occupying the governorship of Puerto Plata, Antonio Enver Barreras, 15 expeditionaries led by Horacio Julio Ernesto landed on the shores of Luperon. Their hydroplane, Catarina, was attacked by a Dominican coast guard, resulting in the immediate incineration of the plane and the death of some expeditionaries. Among the casualties were individuals from various nationalities.

In 1947, Dominican forces were part of a coalition government. Two planes carrying contingents led by Juancito Rodriguez and Miguel Angel Ramirez made stops in Cozumel and the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico to refuel, where they were detained by Mexican authorities.

Historical precedents in the Caribbean include the governments of Rómulo Betancourt in Venezuela, Juan José Arévalo in Guatemala, and a pact of aggression against the Republic in Haiti in 1947. The military power of the United States was displayed in Cayo Confites, disguised as the 'Legion of the Caribbean.' Prio Socarrás and Juan José Arévalo carried out an armed attack in 1949 in the Bay of Luperón, emerging victorious with the help of brave individuals and divine assistance.

In March 1933, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was sworn in as the President of the United States, initiating the New Deal policy to address the economic crisis and the Good Neighbor Policy for relations with Latin America. This marked the beginning of the consolidation of Trujillo's regime and its ties with the U.S., facilitated by Roosevelt's prior involvement in the preparations for the American invasion of Santo Domingo.

Various influential individuals, including Joseph Davis, William Morgan, General José, and Major General Thomas Watson, played key roles as lobbyists for Trujillo. Joseph Davis, a close friend of President Roosevelt, held significant diplomatic positions and was instrumental in promoting Trujillo's interests. General José and Major General Watson were involved in military interventions in Santo Domingo and Haiti, respectively. Warren served as the U.S. ambassador to Santo Domingo and was also a lobbyist for Trujillo.

Trujillo employed various tactics to maintain power, including appointing Salvador Comían Parra as the military aide of General George Brett. Additionally, Trujillo used substantial amounts of money for favors, gifts, and bribes to influence journalists, politicians, and congressmen based on his current interests. One notable case is Senator Hamilton Fish, who received favors from Trujillo after the massacre of Haitians in 1937.

In March 1939, Senator Fish faced criticism for allegedly receiving $25,000 from Trujillo for a supposed oil exploration project. Upon returning to the US, Fish praised Trujillo, whom he previously condemned, and initiated efforts to officially invite Trujillo to Washington.

Sonder Wells, a prominent opponent of Trujillo's dictatorship and a close friend of Horacio Vásquez, was appointed as the Undersecretary of State for Latin America by President Roosevelt in early 1933. Despite his position, Wells was unable to act against Trujillo due to the Good Neighbor Policy and Trujillo's allies in Washington.

In June 1944, Ellis O. Briggs, the US ambassador, reported to the State Department that Trujillo's rule in the Dominican Republic was characterized by fear and repression. Briggs emphasized that while Trujillo claimed patriotism, his actions were driven by personal pride and a disregard for international appeasement.

In November 1944, Nelson Rockefeller, the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, displayed friendship towards Trujillo during his visit to Santo Domingo, leading to tensions with the US ambassador. Rockefeller's actions caused diplomatic rifts, resulting in the ambassador's demotion and the appointment of a new ambassador, Jeff Maggert, who also opposed Trujillo's regime.

In April 1945, Nazi Germany surrendered, followed by Japan six months later, marking the end of World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's death in April 1945 led to Harry S. Truman assuming the US presidency. Subsequent changes in US foreign policy towards Latin American dictatorships were recommended by Ambassador Spring Bryden in a memorandum dated April 5, 1945.

There is a call for a reevaluation of policies towards dictators and discredited governments that contradict the principles and freedoms being fought for. The US, as a democratic entity, cannot thrive in a non-democratic world. Surrounding oneself with democracies is seen as crucial for survival.

Trujillo made significant efforts, through allies in Washington, to prevent the US Congress from ratifying Bryde's appointment. Despite influential allies like Nelson Rockefeller and Juan Domingo Perón, Trujillo failed in his attempts. Bryde was eventually ratified, and one of his initial actions was appointing Félix Brych as his assistant.

In December 1946, the US Ambassador in Santo Domingo, George Water, urged the Department of State to initiate a multilateral action against Trujillo's dictatorship. However, a public declaration opposing the Dominican dictatorial regime was never issued, delaying any concrete action against Trujillo.

The Department of State imposed an arms embargo on the Dominican Republic, leaving Trujillo's military poorly equipped with outdated weaponry from 1930. Trujillo, fearing invasion rumors, sought to strengthen his forces by acquiring combat aircraft. Despite repeated denials from the US, Trujillo managed to illegally purchase 15 warplanes through Captain Georg Stamets, a former US Marine Corps officer.

The Dominican military aviation, where notable figures like pilot Octavio de la Masa and Americans Alan Johnston and Lorenzo Barry, also known as Wimpy, served under Trujillo to illegally acquire arms from the US.

In February 1947, General George Marshall became the US Secretary of State and four months later introduced the famous Marshall Plan to counter Soviet influence in Europe.

In March 1947, President Truman announced the American policy to combat communism in Europe, marking the beginning of the Cold War. This led to the authorization of arms sales to all Latin American countries, including dictatorships, in May of the same year.

The second most important city in the country, Santiago, showed opposition to Trujillo from the early years of his regime. In the mid-1930s, a conspiracy to eliminate Trujillo was discovered, involving 44 individuals from various social sectors, resulting in harsh sentences and brutal torture for the conspirators.

In August 1934, Trujillo appointed General José Estrella as a special government commissioner for the Cibao region, based in Santiago. Known for his cruelty, Estrella terrorized the region until Trujillo eventually imprisoned him in November 1940 for the murder of Virgilio Martínez Reyna and his wife in 1930.

Mario Fermín Cabral ascended to the governorship of Santiago on October 17, 1940. However, he was later removed from his position in June of the following year due to serious accusations. After spending two months in prison, Trujillo released him and reinstated him as part of his collaborators, showcasing the social resentment present in Santiago towards Trujillo's absolute power.

Trujillo's authoritarian rule in Santiago was marked by forcing all citizens to parade under his feet, symbolizing his absolute power. The city of Santiago, where Trujillo had once endured humiliations, now showcased his dominance and control, with citizens compelled to show allegiance to him.

The monument to Trujillo in Santiago, initiated by Mario Fermín Cabral and Pedro R. Espada, aimed to pay tribute to Trujillo. The construction of the monument began on April 30, 1944, with the symbolic first dig by the governor of Santiago, Isabel Mayer. The monument, designed by architect Henry Cason Bona, was intended to be a grand tribute to Trujillo, although it was never officially inaugurated.

Despite the monumental structure of Trujillo's peace monument, it was never officially inaugurated. Many official celebrations by the dictatorship in Santiago were held in its vicinity, symbolizing the omnipresence of Trujillo's influence and power over the city and its inhabitants.

In October 1952, Trujillo established the Institute Trujillo Nyan to study and promote his governance. This institute, along with the appointment of Luis Amiama Tió as president of the administrative council of Santo Domingo, further solidified the intellectual support for Trujillo's dictatorial regime.

During the dictatorship, the intellectual elite in the Dominican Republic, led by President Manuel Arturo Peña Valle, portrayed dictator Trujillo as a messianic figure, emphasizing his divine qualities and comparing him to a savior. This narrative was actively promoted by the Trujillo regime to solidify his power and control over the population.

In the 1940s and 1950s, intellectuals aligned with Trujillo focused on promoting Catholicism and the Hispanic tradition in the Dominican Republic. They sought to merge patriotic sentiments with Spanish heritage and Catholicism, marginalizing other cultural influences. This effort aimed to strengthen the regime's legitimacy and cultural identity.

The 1935 national population census revealed the ethnic composition of the Dominican Republic: 13% white, 16% black, and 70% mulatto. This data highlighted the diverse racial makeup of the population during that period, reflecting a mix of European, African, and indigenous heritage.

In mid-1933, a group of military officers, including Colonel Leoncio Blanco, planned a coup to overthrow Trujillo and establish a military junta. The conspiracy involved civilians and high-ranking officers like General Ramón Vázquez Ribera, Major Animal Vallejo, and Lieutenant Colonel Luis Silverio Gómez. Despite their efforts, the coup ultimately failed, highlighting the challenges to dissent and opposition under Trujillo's authoritarian rule.

In June 1933, the conspiracy was exposed, leading to the arrest of Colonel Leoncio Blanco and many others. After being tortured in the Nigua prison, over 120 military and civilian individuals involved were summarily executed.

In March 1935, another conspiracy in Santo Domingo aimed at Mickey Lara Trujillo was dismantled. The plan involved shooting Trujillo near the Parque Independencia or capturing him at a specific location. The plot was betrayed, resulting in the arrest of 24 individuals, including prominent figures like Oscar Michelena and Amadeo Barletta.

In 1946, Captain Eugenio de Marchena orchestrated a plan to eliminate Trujillo during one of his visits to the military compound. The conspiracy involved military personnel and civilians, but it was betrayed at the last moment. Captain Marchena was subjected to the 'law of flight,' and the other 29 involved individuals were transferred to prisons across the country and subsequently murdered.

In March 1956, undercover agents working for Trujillo abducted Jesús de Galíndez, a Spanish exile, from his apartment in Manhattan. Galíndez was clandestinely transported to Santo Domingo, marking a significant event in Trujillo's reign of terror.

Following the mysterious disappearance of Jesús de Galíndez, Trujillo initiated a wave of assassinations targeting individuals who posed a threat to his dictatorship, signaling a period of heightened repression and violence.

The abduction of Jesús de Galíndez and the subsequent series of assassinations marked the beginning of the end for Trujillo's oppressive regime, setting the stage for the eventual downfall of his dictatorship.