Advancements in Physics: Insights from the Second International Congress on Research and Teaching of Physics 2023

The second International Congress on Physics Research and Teaching for the year 2023 has commenced, bringing together national and international experts in scientific research. The event aims to foster development in various areas of the physical sciences and promote academic exchanges among students, professors, researchers, and professionals. It will run from October 25th to October 27th, with the support of institutions like the Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia and the Universidad Politécnico de Querétaro.

The event will feature plenary sessions from 8:00 am to 12:00 pm, followed by thematic sessions from 12:45 pm to 2:45 pm, including oral presentations. There will be a break from 12:00 pm to 12:45 pm and a return to plenary sessions from 2:45 pm to 3:45 pm, featuring expert-led talks. The event will cover thematic areas such as applied physics to engineering and education, theoretical and experimental physics, and physics teaching.

The event is being broadcast live on the YouTube channel of the Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia TV, allowing viewers to follow the proceedings remotely. The event aims to engage a wide audience and promote knowledge sharing in the field of physics.

Gratitude is expressed towards the organizers of the event and the audience for their participation. Viewers are encouraged to interact through question forms and share their experiences during the congress. The event aims to create a collaborative and engaging environment for all participants.

The audience is invited to join in singing the anthem of the Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia, fostering a sense of unity and pride in the institution. The anthem symbolizes the dedication of students and the pursuit of excellence in education and research.

Physics in Colombia traces back to the 1803 expedition by José Celestino Mutis, leading to the creation of the National Astronomical Observatory. The Colombian Physics Society was established in 1955, followed by the Physics Department at the National University in 1959. The first National Physics Congress took place in 1964, with its proceedings published in the Colombian Physics Journal in 1965.

Dr. Diana Carolina Herrera, a physicist and national leader in basic sciences, inaugurated the second International Physics Research and Teaching Congress. The event aims to promote open science and education in physics, reflecting on Colombia's physics history and the current landscape of 28 physics programs across different fields.

Colombia offers a total of 28 physics programs categorized into three broad fields: Natural Sciences, Mathematics, and Statistics; Engineering, Industry, and Construction; and Education. The majority of programs are officially recognized, with 13 in Natural Sciences, 4 in Engineering, and 6 in Education. This distribution highlights the emphasis on official physics education in the country.

Between 2020 and 2022, Colombia saw a total of 1906 physics graduates, with a slight increase in numbers over the years. The data shows 624 graduates in 2020, 626 in 2021, and 656 in 2022. This growth in the number of physics graduates reflects a positive trend in physics education and the country's commitment to producing skilled professionals in the field.

The International Physics Research and Teaching Congress serves as a platform for open science and education accessibility. It emerged in response to technological advancements and the COVID-19 pandemic, enabling virtual events to reach a wider audience. Specialized platforms have been developed to ensure high-quality virtual conferences, expanding the reach and impact of physics education and research.

The first International Physics Congress in Colombia, organized by the National Open and Distance University in 2022, aimed to break economic barriers and reduce costs associated with physical conferences. It sought to provide high-quality science education to Colombian territories at no cost, emphasizing the importance of virtual conferences in complementing traditional in-person events.

The inaugural International Physics Congress was a collaborative effort involving six university institutions, municipal secretariats, and other associations, including the Universidad Politécnica de Querétaro from Mexico. With a total of 1224 participants, the event saw significant involvement from both the National Open and Distance University and external educators, showcasing a diverse range of contributions.

The congress had a substantial impact on the YouTube platform, garnering a total of 19107 views during the event days. This highlights the global reach and accessibility of the conference, demonstrating the effectiveness of utilizing online platforms for scientific dissemination and education.

The upcoming second International Physics Congress, scheduled for October 25-27, aims to further enhance its international scope and impact. With seven organizing universities and a focus on physics as a driver of innovation in energy transition, the event seeks to attract diverse presentations and keynote speakers to address the challenges of energy transition in alignment with national development plans.

The speaker introduces the Energy Transition Congress, highlighting the context of the National Open and Distance University's first virtual engineering program in energy. The congress will span two days with 13 keynote speeches, 8 international and 5 national. There will be 32 presentations, 25 international and 7 national, showcasing the high quality and impact of national physics research.

The speaker emphasizes the importance of international and national participation in the congress, aiming to enhance knowledge exchange and multicultural contexts. The event is seen as a platform for students to broaden their perspectives and explore beyond their current aspirations for the future.

Dr. Elvis Rodríguez, an electronic engineer with an MBA and expertise in project management, is introduced as a university lecturer and researcher with over 7 years of experience in the electrical sector. His focus includes process improvement, instrumentation, control, telecommunications, and energy efficiency in electrical engineering.

Dr. Elvis Rodríguez provides a general evaluation of energy transition, physical principles, and innovation in the electrical sector. The presentation aims to enrich the audience's understanding of these topics and encourage active participation at both national and global levels.

The discussion begins with an introduction to the concept of energy transition, highlighting the importance of transitioning from conventional energy sources like gas and oil to renewable resources. This shift aims to create sustainable energy projects that guarantee a reliable energy supply for industries and overall production. The speaker emphasizes the significance of this transition for the country and the energy sector, focusing on the need to utilize renewable resources for electricity generation.

Energy transition is defined as the process of shifting from one form of electricity production to another. It involves replacing conventional resources such as gas and oil with renewable or non-conventional resources. The goal is to gradually transition towards sustainable energy sources, moving away from traditional methods of energy generation.

The necessity of energy transition is underscored by international initiatives like the 2015 International Conference on Climate Change in France. This conference marked a significant step towards addressing climate change issues and promoting sustainable energy practices. The speaker mentions the Kyoto Protocol as another pivotal event that initiated actions to combat climate change. The country has since been involved in developing regulations and technical standards for electrical installations to incorporate renewable energy sources and reduce carbon footprint.

The use of renewable resources in energy production is crucial for reducing carbon emissions and mitigating the impact of greenhouse gases. International efforts to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and combat global warming emphasize the importance of transitioning to renewable energy sources. The electrical industry plays a significant role in contributing to carbon footprint, making it essential for the sector to prioritize energy transition initiatives to minimize environmental impact.

Conventional energy generation typically involves thermal or thermoelectric energy generation, relying heavily on fossil fuels for electricity production. Countries like the United States and China heavily depend on thermal energy generation, while Colombia primarily generates energy from hydroelectric resources, accounting for approximately 80% of the country's energy production.

Nuclear energy generation is considered a conventional method and has been an option for countries like the United States and China. However, the focus on transitioning to sustainable projects aims to reduce carbon footprint and promote cleaner energy sources to meet international standards and combat climate change.

The transition to sustainable energy projects is crucial for reducing carbon emissions and creating cleaner energy solutions. These initiatives aim to align with international protocols and address climate change concerns by implementing projects that are environmentally friendly and contribute to lowering carbon footprints.

The electricity generation process typically involves converting mechanical energy into electrical energy through turbines connected to generators. While most systems follow this principle, solar energy generation relies on the photoelectric effect for energy production, showcasing different physical principles at play.

Conventional energy generation involves transforming thermal energy into mechanical work, which is then converted into electrical energy. This process is essential for reducing the impact of energy projects.

The Rankine cycle is an ideal thermodynamic cycle that converts thermal energy into mechanical work. The mechanical work generated is used to produce mechanical power in a steam turbine connected to a generator, ultimately generating electrical energy.

The thermodynamic cycle involves an isoentropic expansion of the working fluid in the turbine from high to low pressure, leading to the generation of electrical energy. The process includes heat transfer and fluid condensation to operate efficiently.

The Rankine cycle typically uses water as the primary fluid for generating steam. A boiler, often fueled by fossil fuels, produces steam that drives a turbine, converting thermal energy into mechanical energy, which is then connected to a generator to produce electricity.

The fluid work in the cooling circuit is utilized to transform into mechanical energy, with residual work captured in the condenser. The process involves isoentropic compression, converting vapor into water in a refrigeration cycle to maximize mechanical energy generation from thermal energy transformation.

Different energy generation schemes have specific efficiencies, aiming to maximize mechanical energy from thermal energy transformation. The discussion highlights the principle of generation from conventional resources.

The transition to renewable energy sources is crucial to reduce emissions from fossil fuel combustion, particularly in thermoelectric plants. Efforts are focused on changing the primary source of emissions, aiming for an energy transition.

The Brighton cycle, commonly used in gas turbines, produces mechanical energy from chemical energy through fossil fuel combustion. Combined cycles, like hydro-thermal power plants, utilize both thermal and chemical energy to generate mechanical energy efficiently.

Hydrogen management and energy work with hydrogen are essential for sustainability in electrical terms. Hydrogen, as the lightest chemical element constituting 7% of the universe's matter, is increasingly explored for its potential in sustainable energy practices.

Hydrogen is used in various industries such as oil refining, food, metal, glass, and chemical industries for multiple purposes.

Hydrogen is extracted through electrolysis, a process where a substance, usually water, is decomposed into its basic components by applying a current through electrodes.

Electrolysis of hydrogen requires an electrical resource, typically generated through conventional energy sources.

Faraday's laws state that the mass of a substance deposited during electrolysis is directly proportional to the amount of electricity transferred. This relates to the separation and generation of specific charges during the electrolysis process.

Hydrogen can be extracted through various methods, with electrolysis of water being a common technique to produce hydrogen. Different types of hydrogen extraction include gray, blue, and green hydrogen, with a focus on green hydrogen for innovation in energy sustainability.

Green hydrogen production involves injecting an electric current into an electrolyte to facilitate a chemical reaction. The process aims to shift from fossil fuel-based generation to renewable energy sources like wind, solar, geothermal, and hydroelectric power. This transition reduces carbon dioxide emissions and carbon footprint, aligning with global sustainability goals.

Hydrogen extraction serves various purposes in the electrical sector, primarily through fuel cells. Fuel cells operate using electrochemical processes to generate electricity from hydrogen and oxygen. This technology enables efficient energy production and supports sustainability initiatives in the electrical industry.

The main objective is to implement a hydrogen recycling process to achieve higher efficiency with significantly fewer losses compared to conventional methods. Traditional systems relying on fuels result in substantial thermal losses, while the cyclic nature of the hydrogen process minimizes losses by recycling unused hydrogen that is not interacting with oxygen particles.

Interactions within the process will generate electrical energy, producing water molecules that can also be recycled. The water vapor produced can be utilized in the electrical industry, providing an alternative to traditional thermal generation methods, aligning with the global energy transition goals to reduce reliance on thermal energy.

The re-electrification of hydrogen involves converting extracted hydrogen back into electrical energy. This can be achieved by transforming hydrogen into thermal energy, which in turn powers mechanical processes like steam turbines to generate electricity, creating a renewable cycle that mitigates CO2 emissions responsible for greenhouse gas effects.

The innovation potential of hydrogen extends beyond electrical generation, offering opportunities for emission reduction and diverse energy production methods through thermal energy generation. The versatility of hydrogen presents a significant opportunity for innovation and advancement in the energy sector.

Hydrogen fueling stations, known as hydrogen stations or hydrogen fueling stations, are being developed to supply high-pressure hydrogen for various applications. Countries like Spain have already implemented transportation methods using hydrogen fuel cells, which power vehicles with hydrogen stored in fuel tanks and operated through fuel cells. These stations also play a role in generating electricity independently, contributing to innovation and sustainability in electric projects.

Spain currently utilizes transportation methods based on hydrogen, functioning primarily with fuel cells. Vehicles equipped with hydrogen tanks are supplied with hydrogen and operate through fuel cells, showcasing a comprehensive approach to generating electric power for various applications independently from the grid.

Hydrogen fueling stations require tanks for storing hydrogen to supply vehicles. The process involves utilizing hydrogen to generate electric power, ensuring efficient vehicle operation. This application highlights the versatility and importance of hydrogen as a resource with abundant availability, offering different utilization methods for enhanced efficiency and sustainability in energy transition.

The transition to hydrogen as an energy source presents a significant shift not only in the electric sector but also in various industrial applications. It emphasizes the need to explore alternative energy sources beyond conventional ones like solar and wind power, aiming to develop sustainable projects with long-term viability and positive impacts on energy efficiency.

Hydrogen offers increased efficiency in vehicles compared to traditional combustion engines, with current hydrogen systems achieving efficiency rates of 40 to 60%, a substantial improvement over existing conditions. This efficiency enhancement underscores the role of hydrogen in driving an important energy transition across multiple sectors, including transportation and industry.

The speaker discusses the importance of hydrogen as a transition energy source for electric vehicles and thermal generation. Mentioning that countries like Spain have started implementing hydrogen for transportation, they highlight the need for more research in this relatively new field to fully utilize its potential.

The conversation shifts to the extraction of energy from volcanoes and other geothermal sources. The speaker explains the process of generating electricity from geothermal resources, citing examples like the utilization of thermal energy from bodies of water to produce electrical energy. They also mention the confusion between solar energy and photovoltaic solar energy, emphasizing the diverse sources available for energy transformation.

The discussion delves into the concept of energy transition and efficiency, emphasizing the importance of utilizing resources sustainably and efficiently. The speaker highlights the need to focus on improving resource utilization rather than simply replacing one energy source with another. They stress the significance of maintaining current energy generation methods while striving for sustainability and efficiency.

Regarding the implementation of virtual education in exact sciences like physics, chemistry, and mathematics, the speaker expresses the importance of virtual learning. They note how virtual platforms have significantly aided in learning processes, providing increased access to information. The speaker acknowledges the benefits of virtual education in professionalizing individuals in exact sciences, highlighting its role in enhancing autonomous learning methods.

The speaker highlights the importance of increased access to information and resources in virtual education. This access allows for more emphasis on various elements, especially in teaching and research in physics and mathematics. The availability of resources enables individuals to engage in research contributions across various sciences and engineering fields, supporting significant advancements.

Dr. Ros Roxana Meléndez, an electrical engineer from Florida Atlantic University, is introduced as the next speaker at the international conference. She holds a master's degree in electrical engineering and specializes in engineering management systems. The audience is informed about the speaker's background and the time allocated for her presentation and subsequent question session.

Dr. Ros Roxana Meléndez begins her presentation on the topic of smart grids and electric microgrids. She discusses the importance of transitioning to intelligent electrical networks and focuses on cybersecurity in electric microgrids. The presentation aims to develop engineering laboratories using artificial intelligence techniques for online courses on electric microgrids.

The research focuses on designing laboratories for detecting cyberattacks on microgrids, using machine learning techniques like neural networks. Real data from the power system of the Dominican Republic is utilized for simulations in the online course on electric microgrids and cybersecurity.

One of the key research questions is how to design online laboratories related to cybersecurity for electric microgrids. These labs must incorporate real data and artificial intelligence methodologies, such as neural networks, to detect cyberattacks effectively.

Real data associated with the power system of the Dominican Republic, including voltage and power values, is made available through the Open Science Framework platform. Anyone interested can access this data for research purposes.

Microgrids consist of various components like power generation, control systems, communication systems, and computing equipment. Due to their importance in smart energy systems, microgrids are vulnerable to frequent cyberattacks, making cybersecurity crucial for their protection.

Microgrids are vulnerable to cyber attacks, facing issues such as abrupt network disconnection, equipment failures, technical problems with control elements and telecommunications. These challenges can lead to long-duration power outages, catastrophic equipment disconnections, and reliability issues affecting electricity demand coverage.

Cyber attacks on microgrids can result in technical problems affecting system components, ultimately impacting the reliability and performance of the microgrid. The main consequence of a cyber attack is the disruption of electricity supply to users, leading to power cuts and technical issues within the microgrid.

Viewing microgrids as cyber-physical systems highlights the integration of information technologies and physical equipment. Components of a microgrid include renewable energy sources like photovoltaic systems, wind turbines, fuel cells, and diesel generators, as well as electric loads from residential, commercial, and industrial users.

Key components of a microgrid include renewable energy sources, electric loads, point of common coupling (PCC) for connection to the main grid, control systems, and instrumentation and communication equipment. The system's cyber aspect involves communication and computing devices, along with software managing microgrid operations.

The primary cybersecurity requirements for microgrids are availability, confidentiality, and integrity of data. Ensuring data availability means that information such as voltage, current, power levels, and load data must be accessible and timely to maintain the secure operation of the microgrid.

Data precision is crucial for the proper functioning of microgrids. Cybercriminals can manipulate voltage, current, and power data by introducing false values, leading to incorrect decisions by the control system and resulting in poor microgrid operation. Confidentiality of information is essential, with only authorized personnel like microgrid operators having access to it. Microgrids are vulnerable to cyberattacks in communication, instrumentation, and data acquisition components, making them susceptible to cyber intrusions and human errors.

Microgrid systems are vulnerable to intentional introduction of false data, leading to erroneous decisions and suboptimal electrical system performance. Human errors, natural disasters like earthquakes, tornadoes, and hurricanes can also cause technical failures in microgrid systems. Ensuring accurate data in microgrid operations is crucial to prevent system malfunctions and chaos.

Injecting false data into microgrid systems constitutes a cyberattack, aiming to disrupt system performance by intentionally modifying electrical variables. Cybercriminals seek to create chaos in microgrid operations by injecting false data into software, control systems, and communication networks. The National Electric Sector Cybersecurity Organization (NESCO) defines various failure scenarios in measurement infrastructure, energy resources, monitoring, protection, and control systems, transportation of electrical energy, demand response, and distribution network management.

NESCO categorizes threat agents in cybersecurity as economic criminals, malicious actors, recreational offenders, terrorists, human errors, and natural hazards. Understanding these threat agents is crucial for safeguarding microgrid systems against cyber threats and ensuring the resilience of the electrical infrastructure.

There are different types of cybercriminals based on their motivations: economic criminals driven by money, malicious criminals motivated by causing harm, and recreational criminals seeking fun or self-promotion.

The point of common connection (PCC) in microgrid systems is highly vulnerable to cyberattacks as it is accessed by both the main electrical system operators and microgrid users, making it a prime target for malicious actors.

The objective is to create an online course with labs that help detect cyberattacks on microgrid systems. Two types of labs were designed: one using Matlab software and another using Google Colaboratory.

In the cybersecurity domain, a Matlab classifier was employed using predictors such as voltage, currents in different phases, and electrical demand from real data of the Dominican Republic's electrical system. The model achieved a 98% accuracy using a decision tree for training.

Matlab's classification learner tool processes current, voltage, and electrical demand data to classify normal operation or cyberattacks in microgrid systems. Data is modified to simulate attacks, and the tool undergoes training and testing phases to accurately classify scenarios.

In the discussion, it was explained that in cybersecurity, attacks are classified using Matlab. Matlab is given 20 data points of voltage, current, and power consumption to classify without prior knowledge of whether it is an attack or not. This phase is referred to as the testing phase.

A confusion matrix, a tool used in artificial intelligence, was mentioned. It helps in classifying predicted classes as either attacks or normal operations. The matrix shows the classification results where some data points were correctly classified while others were misclassified.

The Google Collaboratory algorithm discussed is more complex as it utilizes artificial neural networks for cybersecurity. These neural networks are part of machine learning and artificial intelligence. The algorithm introduced fake voltage data as part of 10,000 data points for training and testing.

The process of generating data involved using voltage values from a portion of the electrical system in the Dominican Republic. Minimum and maximum voltage values were considered, and data points were generated using a uniform distribution. Fake data simulating cyberattacks were inserted among the 10,000 data points.

The neural network implemented had multiple layers, including an input layer for voltage and demand variables, two hidden layers with 14 neurons each, and an output layer determining if the data represented an attack or not. The network was trained over 200 epochs.

During training, 70% of the 10,000 data points were used, while 30% were reserved for testing. The final accuracy after 200 epochs was 95%. This high accuracy indicates that the neural network effectively learned to differentiate between attack and normal conditions.

In the testing phase, the neural network was presented with new data without labels indicating attacks or normal conditions. The network successfully classified these new data points based on its training, demonstrating its ability to generalize and identify attacks in real-time scenarios.

The algorithm accurately predicted a cyber attack with a 99% probability based on the first set of values. It correctly identified a non-attack scenario with only a 2% chance. This demonstrates the algorithm's ability to classify cyber attacks in an electric microgrid.

The algorithm's performance is evaluated using two key metrics: loss and accuracy. These metrics are crucial in neural networks, where reducing loss leads to increased accuracy. By successfully decreasing losses during training, the algorithm improved precision, indicating effective cyber attack classification.

The confusion matrix revealed that the algorithm misclassified 18 cases as attacks when they were not. However, out of 1019 actual attack cases, the algorithm correctly predicted 1019, showcasing its success in identifying true attacks. This analysis highlights the algorithm's overall effectiveness in distinguishing between attack and non-attack scenarios.

A Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) focusing on cybersecurity for electric microgrids is being developed. It incorporates artificial intelligence tools like Google Colaboratory and MATLAB. These free tools enable students to access real datasets provided by the Ministry of Energy of the Dominican Republic through the Open Science Framework. The MOOC also covers state estimation and optimization in electric microgrids, thanks to support from the Engineering Postdoctoral Fellowship program (IFOS) and various engineering associations and institutions.

Attacks on microgrids can have severe consequences, such as disrupting the supply of electricity to users connected to the main electrical system. In cases where a microgrid fails, users may face power outages, impacting daily activities in industries, commercial sectors, and residential areas.

Detecting cyberattacks in everyday life, especially for non-experts, can be challenging. Individuals with a background in computer systems can launch cyberattacks not only on microgrids but also on devices like cell phones and computers. Recognizing attacks depends on monitoring equipment functions for abnormal behavior, such as phishing emails targeting sensitive information like banking details.

There are online courses available on cybersecurity and electrical grid security. While some courses cover cybersecurity basics, they may lack in-depth algorithms for attack detection. A specific course being developed as part of a postdoctoral program integrates detection algorithms, providing a more comprehensive understanding of microgrid cybersecurity.

The course is currently available in Google Collaboratory, developed in MATLAB. It is hosted on the platform of Florida Atlantic University. There are plans to offer it as part of the course offerings at UNAT in the future, although this is still under consideration. The course exists but is not yet commercially available.

Roxana expresses regret for not being able to answer all questions during the session. She provides her email for participants to send their queries, as she is passionate about the topic and eager to share more information based on her personal and professional experiences.

Dr. Fernando Andrés Quiñones Granados, a physicist from the Industrial University of Santander and a Ph.D. in Physics from the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, is introduced as the keynote speaker. He is renowned for his contributions to research, including co-authoring over 200 research articles and being part of the expedition from Colombia to Antarctica.

Dr. Fernando Andrés Quiñones Granados begins his presentation on the discovery and implications of the Higgs boson. The talk covers a historical introduction to particle physics, the philosophy of modern particle physics, a qualitative explanation of the Standard Model of elementary particles, a description of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), and the implications of discovering the Higgs boson.

The origins of particle physics trace back to ancient Greece with the atomistic mechanistic theories of Democritus and Leucippus. They introduced the concept of atoms, with Democritus being a student of Leucippus, both belonging to the naturalistic Ionian school of philosophy.

Democritus, also known as 'The Chosen One of the People,' proposed the concept of atoms as eternal, indivisible, homogeneous, and indestructible entities. He believed that atoms differed only in shape and size, not in internal qualities. According to Democritus, the properties of matter varied based on how atoms were grouped together. He traveled extensively, boasting about his ability to explain any phenomenon using his method of breaking down drawings into small strokes and explaining phenomena through point strokes.

Democritus's atomistic views contrasted with the Eleatic philosophy led by Parmenides, which denied the existence of movement and considered it a mere phenomenon. The Eleatics could not conceive that particles devoid of sensation could compose living beings. They rejected the idea of atoms forming the essence of living beings, unlike Democritus.

Isaac Newton, a genius in mechanics, introduced calculus with Leibniz and laid down the foundations of natural philosophy in his work 'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.' Newton's laws encompassed point masses and rigid bodies, with the center of mass treated as a small point. He developed the mathematics of dynamic motion. Newton also explained the properties of light by considering it composed of tiny particles, which allowed him to elucidate phenomena like reflection, refraction, and the behavior of lenses, including separating white light into the colors of the rainbow.

Newton's first law of motion states that an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force. The second law establishes that force is proportional to the acceleration of a body in motion, with mass being the constant of proportionality. Newton's third law introduces the concept of action and reaction, along with the law of gravitation.

Diffraction is the phenomenon where light waves encounter an obstacle or aperture and bend around it, creating interference patterns. This effect cannot be explained by classical physics and is often observed in experiments involving light passing through slits or apertures.

The double-slit experiment involves passing light through two narrow slits, resulting in an interference pattern on a screen. This phenomenon led to the development of holography and challenged Newton's particle theory of light, suggesting that light behaves more like waves.

James Clerk Maxwell summarized the laws of electricity and magnetism into four equations known as Maxwell's equations. These equations provided a mathematical framework for understanding electromagnetism and led to the realization that light consists of electromagnetic waves. Maxwell also calculated the speed of light and constants like the permittivity and permeability of space.

In the hidden world, alchemists emerged, seeking to transmute matter into gold. This desire for transmutation, inspired by the story of King Midas, conflicted with the beliefs of Democritus and Leucippus, who viewed atoms as immutable and eternal.

Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the behavior of atoms in the periodic table, arranging elements by atomic mass. He observed patterns of electronegativity and predicted the existence of gallium and scandium.

J. Thomson, using cathode ray tubes, discovered the electron, the first elementary particle. His experiments with neon gas led to the understanding of isotopes and the relationship between mass and charge of particles.

Researchers found that atoms are not infinite and can change. The discovery of isotopes, through experiments with neon, revealed variations in atomic structure, challenging the notion of immutable atoms held by earlier thinkers like Democritus and Leucippus.

Marie Curie and Pierre Curie made significant contributions to the understanding of radioactivity. Marie discovered polonium and radium, while Pierre studied piezoelectricity in crystals. Additionally, Henry Becquerel identified beta rays, alpha rays, and gamma rays, each representing different particles.

Radiation was classified based on its penetration ability, with alpha particles penetrating the least, beta particles penetrating more, and gamma radiation passing through most materials.

The discovery of radioactivity led to the realization that matter could transmute, challenging the belief in the eternal nature of chemical elements.

In 1900, Max Planck introduced the concept of quantized energy absorption by matter when illuminated with light or irradiated with electromagnetic waves, leading to the foundation of quantum theory.

Albert Einstein, in 1904, convinced Max Planck to reconsider light as composed of quantized packets, introducing the concept of photons and revolutionizing electromagnetism.

Albert Einstein's famous equation, E=mc^2, emerged from the concept of photons moving particles when light was created, demonstrating the interplay between energy, mass, and light.

Ernest Rutherford, known as the father of nuclear physics, had a significant impact on the field, with many of his students later winning Nobel Prizes in Physics.

Marie Curie's husband worked with uranium in his laboratory, protecting himself better than the Curies. He measured radiation levels by enclosing uranium in metal plates and discovered alpha particles. He also identified alpha, beta, and gamma particles, laying the foundation for further research.

Rutherford bombarded gold foil and observed interactions on a screen, leading to the discovery of the atomic nucleus. He deduced that atoms have a positively charged nucleus, which led to the development of his atomic model.

Niels Bohr improved Rutherford's model by proposing that electrons orbit the nucleus in circular paths, akin to a planetary model. He introduced the concept of quantized energy levels and explained electron transitions through photon emission or absorption.

The discoveries in atomic physics have revolutionized chemistry and society by providing insights into chemical reactions. These foundational principles form the basis of modern atomic physics and have contributed significantly to scientific advancements.

In 1932, the neutron was discovered, a particle predicted by Heisenberg in his quantum mechanics framework. This discovery led to a correction in the Nobel Prize committee's decision, recognizing the creators of quantum mechanics for their groundbreaking work.

Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Dirac described the equation of an electron orbiting a proton. Schrödinger did it without Einstein's relativistic mechanism, while Dirac followed Einstein's notation. The equation includes a MC squared term, representing time and spatial coordinates. It predicts antiparticles and the existence of other leptons with different charges. This equation, akin to Einstein's, remains relevant today, leading to the discovery of the Higgs boson.

Enrico Fermi theoretically proposed the neutrino to balance the dynamics equations in processes where matter transformed into other forms, emitting beta particles. Wolfgang Pauli predicted the antineutrino. Experimentalists Cowan and Reines discovered neutrinos in 1956, with the Nobel Prize awarded in 1995, posthumously to Cowan. This discovery revolutionized particle physics.

Carl David Anderson discovered the positron and muon using a single experimental setup. He observed deviations in electron curves, leading to the identification of these fundamental particles. Victor Franz discovered cosmic rays, noting variations in particle flux at different altitudes, attributing the particles to extraterrestrial origins. Both Anderson and Franz received Nobel Prizes for their groundbreaking discoveries.

Victor Franz's research on cosmic rays revealed particles reaching sea level from high altitudes, with decreasing flux as altitude increased. He deduced that these particles originated outside the solar system, opposite to the Sun's direction. Franz's findings, including the diurnal variation in cosmic ray flux, earned him a Nobel Prize in Physics.

After World War I, Louis de Broglie established a world-class quantum mechanics research laboratory. Despite post-war devastation in Europe, de Broglie persisted in his research, culminating in the establishment of CERN in 1960. His dedication to advancing quantum physics significantly impacted the field's development.

The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, focuses on conducting scientific research in quantum mechanics. It strictly prohibits the use of this research for military purposes. CERN has developed particle accelerators, particle detectors, superconducting materials with magnetic fields up to eight tesla, advanced cooling techniques, and cold storage facilities. Additionally, CERN explores quantum computing, engineering advancements, and the wave-particle duality in experiments like the one conducted by Jong.

Richard Feynman, an American physicist, introduced the concept of fermions and bosons in particle physics. He proposed the Lagrangian of quantum electrodynamics, which includes equations for photons, electrons, and the interaction vertex between fermions and bosons. Feynman's theoretical predictions led to the understanding of particle interactions, despite challenges in renormalization.

Through research on particle collisions, scientists discovered that protons and neutrons are not elementary particles but composed of quarks. The model proposed two up quarks and one down quark for a proton, explaining their electric charges. This model also accounted for a variety of non-elementary particles, providing a theoretical framework for particle interactions.

In 1970, a particle was detected at Fermilab, following theoretical predictions made in 1964. CERN, the European research organization, played a crucial role in particle discoveries, including the detection of the Z boson. The Z boson, a type of light particle, has a unique mass. Additionally, CERN researchers contributed to understanding beta decay radiation and advancements in cryogenics for achieving temperatures approaching absolute zero.

Fermi proposed the concept of beta decay where a proton transforms into a neutron by emitting a beta particle. Later, Paul suggested the reverse reaction where a neutron converts into a proton, emitting an electron and an antineutrino. An example of this is the transformation of phosphorus into sulfur over 15 days, demonstrating the principles of particle decay.

Particle physics posits that all matter and interactions are composed of particles. Matter particles follow Fermi statistics, while interaction particles follow Bose statistics. The Standard Model unifies three forces: electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces into a theory that excludes gravity, as adding gravity would introduce infinite values.

Bosons like the photon mediate electromagnetic interactions, W bosons mediate weak nuclear interactions, and gluons mediate strong nuclear interactions. The graviton is absent, but the Higgs boson was discovered to provide mass to other particles, completing the particle physicist's table of atoms.

The Higgs boson imparts mass to particles that have mass, while particles without mass remain unaffected. Additionally, the Higgs mechanism generates a scalar boson and a field that confers mass to all particles in the Standard Model. This discovery was crucial in securing funding for particle research, akin to the biblical creation story of molding the first man from clay.

During the discussion, it was mentioned that in the process of diagonalizing matrices in linear algebra, specific particle masses were determined. The mass of the photon was found to be zero, the mass of the W boson was a certain value, the mass of the Z boson was another value, and the mass of the Higgs boson was yet another value.

The speaker provided an overview of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) detectors, mentioning four multipurpose detectors. Two detectors, Atlas and CMS, were specifically designed to discover the Higgs boson. Atlas was located in Switzerland, while CMS was situated in France. The importance of having multiple detectors for reproducibility in experiments was emphasized.

The discussion delved into the identification of bosons, addressing skepticism regarding their existence. By observing the traces left by particles like fermions and vertices displaced in detectors, the presence of bosons was confirmed. These unique signatures, such as displaced vertices, provided concrete evidence of the existence of bosons.

Further details were shared about the LHC detectors, including Atlas, CMS, Alice, and LHCb. Each detector had specific objectives, such as searching for magnetic monopoles in Alice and investigating the matter-antimatter asymmetry in LHCb. The speaker highlighted the significance of these detectors in advancing particle physics research.

An intriguing aspect discussed was the inclusion of a posthumous tribute in a scientific paper. The speaker, a member of the Atlas collaboration consisting of approximately 3300 physicists and engineers, noted the touching gesture of dedicating the paper to deceased colleagues who had contributed to the research but could not witness the discoveries firsthand.

The paper is dedicated to the memory of colleagues from the Atlas experiment who did not live to see the full impact of their contributions. It acknowledges decades of work and the significance of their efforts.

In the channels, simulation involves computationally simulating noise and then conducting statistical tests to measure the separation between the signal and the simulated noise. This process helps establish the standard model without the physics previously assumed.

There was a significant difference in measurements between 125.6 and 126 in particle physics, leading to data corrections over time despite attempts to reconcile the events.

The detection of the Higgs boson marked a crucial shift from a 50-year ignorance in particle physics, allowing for experimental validation of theoretical models. It enabled progress towards exploring other physics concepts like technical color, interactions with extra dimensions, and string theories.

The detection of the Higgs boson led to a significant increase in computational power, resulting in the acquisition of vast amounts of data. This data empowered researchers to delve into data analysis, simulation, programming, and automation, leading to advancements in various fields including artificial intelligence.

Humanity has reached a level of confidence in experimental capabilities, with quantum measurements achieving precision up to 11 or 13 significant figures. The 2018 redefinition of measurement units no longer relies on standard measures like an iridium bar or a weight in France. Instead, it is based on fundamental constants of nature such as the speed of light, Planck's constant, and the frequency of interaction of cesium-137.

Significant successes include the development of superconducting magnets up to eight tesla, techniques for cooling to absolute zero, and plans to freeze a lake in Geneva using liquid nitrogen for detector maintenance. These advancements showcase the cutting-edge precision and innovation in current scientific endeavors.

Questions arise about the lack of research on particle colliders and specific particles like Triton. The discovery of the Higgs boson, a fundamental particle in particle physics, has sparked inquiries into its impact on theoretical frameworks beyond the standard model. Recent findings in astrophysics, such as a galaxy devoid of dark matter, challenge existing cosmological models and prompt a reevaluation of particle properties.

The discovery of the Higgs boson has led to a reexamination of its properties due to discrepancies in mass distribution predictions between the standard cosmological model and particle physics models. Theoretical discussions are ongoing to reconcile these discrepancies and explore the potential role of the Higgs boson in understanding the universe's composition.

Despite being a decade since the discovery, researchers are just scratching the surface of understanding fundamental particles and their implications in cosmology. Recent discoveries challenging established models indicate a need for further exploration and theoretical development to unravel the mysteries of the universe.

Dr. Humberto Busto Rodríguez, a physicist from the University of Valle and associated researcher of Minciencias, is part of the materials science research group at the Department of Physics of the University of Tolima. He is currently a professor and coordinator of the Master's program in Physics at the University of Tolima.

The discussion revolves around permanent magnets, their characteristics, and applications inspired by an article written by Professor Germán Antonio Pérez Alcar from the Department of Physics at the University of Valle in 2016. The presentation aims to explain the concept of permanent magnets, their properties, and the phenomenon of magnetism.

Magnetic materials play a crucial role in various technological applications, including data storage in computing, automotive and transportation industries, industrial and household electronics, factory automation, medical industry, aviation, and military sector. Laboratories worldwide are actively researching to develop the best materials for permanent magnets that maintain high magnetization even under changing temperatures and external magnetic fields.

Permanent magnets have a wide range of applications in various fields such as particle accelerators, magnetic bubble memories, relays for machine control, computer and office automation, hard drives, rotation motors, coil motors, printers, consumer electronics, medical industry, automotive and transportation, wind power systems, power generation, energy storage, and military equipment.

Historically, permanent magnets have evolved from ferrite and alnico to samarium-cobalt and neodymium magnets. Neodymium magnets, in particular, have found extensive use in computing systems. The development of permanent magnets has led to significant advancements in various industries.

The evolution of neodymium and ferrite magnets is depicted in a graph showing the product of magnetic induction and magnetic field strength. Over time, the energy product of magnets has increased from 12 to 20 megaoersteds, with a current goal of achieving superconducting magnets with a maximum energy of 100 megaoersteds.

The evolution of magnets is illustrated in a study from 2008, showing the progression of hard and soft phases in magnets. The magnetization direction is indicated by arrows, representing the magnetic moments. This evolution highlights the advancements in magnet technology over time.

The maximum energy of magnets evolved from 1910 or 1930 to 2010 with the development of permanent magnets. In the 2010s, the energy continued to increase, reaching approximately 70. This growth is beneficial for industrial applications and technological development. As energy increased, so did the size and geometry of magnets. For example, a magnet from 1947 was 14.3 cm in size, but such large magnets are not suitable for modern electronic devices that are shrinking in size.

As energy evolved, magnets decreased in size. By 1995, neodymium magnets, measuring 22 cubic centimeters in volume, were used in computers. The evolution of magnet size is crucial for accommodating the shrinking sizes of electronic devices like computers and cell phones.

In 2014, Jiménez Villa Corta published an article in physics journals, delving into the understanding of magnets. Laboratory magnetic tests involve inducing a magnetic field to observe magnetic reactions, producing hysteresis cycles. The characteristic curve of magnets varies for soft and hard magnetic materials, indicating the material's magnetic properties.

Magnetic properties are measured in the CGS system using centimeters, grams, and seconds, and in the International System using meters, kilograms, and seconds. The permeability in vacuum is measured in Pela meters per ampere. Scientists analyze magnetization curves to understand magnetic cycles, which help in measuring various magnetic properties.

When a material is magnetized, it reaches saturation where the magnetic flux density remains constant. Remanence, denoted as Br, refers to the residual magnetization after removing the magnetic field. This residual magnetization aids in storing information. The coercivity field, denoted as Hc, determines the material's magnetic hardness. Understanding these properties is crucial for defining the magnetic behavior of materials.

The intensity of the magnetic field produced on a coil is determined by factors such as the number of turns in the coil, the current applied, and the length of the coil. This allows for the calculation of permeability, which is the ratio of magnetic induction or magnetization to the field strength. Different characteristics like permeability, saturation induction, remanent field, coercive field, and energy evolution play a crucial role in understanding the behavior of magnets.

When the external magnetic field is removed, a magnet retains residual magnetization known as remanence. This results in an internal demagnetizing field within the magnet, which is an important characteristic to consider in magnet characterization.

Determining the working point of a permanent magnet post-testing is crucial to evaluate its strength. By calculating the area under the hysteresis curve, the maximum energy of the magnet can be found, indicating its potency. Different geometries and materials can result in varying power outputs for magnets.

Magnetic anisotropy, particularly crystalline anisotropy, aids in characterizing magnets when they reach saturation. Understanding the direction of easy and hard magnetization in materials like iron and nickel is essential for determining their power and efficiency.

Magnetism has a long history, with references dating back to ancient times. In China and Greece, mentions of magnetic fields and materials were made. The origin of magnetism is linked to Magnesia, where natural magnets were discovered. Stories of shepherds' shoes being attracted to magnetized iron oxide stones highlight early observations of magnetism.

To obtain the magnetic induction curve, an experiment involves placing a magnet inside a coil, generating a magnetic field. By varying the magnetization and magnetic field, the magnetic susceptibility can be calculated. This process helps determine the relative permeability of the material.

Magnetic fields can be produced by moving electrons through a wire, as demonstrated in a solenoid experiment. The historical context of magnets appearing naturally is contrasted with the deliberate creation of magnetic fields through electrical currents.

Electrons moving around a nucleus create angular and spin magnetic moments. The combination of these moments contributes to the overall magnetism of materials. Not all materials exhibit magnetic properties due to the cancellation of magnetic moments within the material.

While the nucleus also contributes to magnetism through slight movements, its effect is minimal compared to electrons due to the large mass of protons and neutrons. The inverse relationship between mass and magnetic moment results in a significantly smaller magnetic contribution from the nucleus.

The discussion introduces the CGS system and the international system for measuring factors like magnetic excitation and magnetization. Measurements are done in oersteds or amperes per meter for magnetic excitation, and in gauss or tesla for magnetic induction. Units like permeability and susceptibility are also discussed, with permeability denoted as B/H in CGS and m/Wb per ampere-meter in the international system.

The history of magnetism dates back to ancient times, with Greeks mentioning magnetite around 800 BC. Gilbert experimented with compasses in 1600, affirming Earth as a permanent magnet. Further developments occurred with Christian Oersted studying the relationship between electricity and magnetism, leading to the creation of the first motors in 1820 by Faraday. Maxwell's equations further advanced the understanding of electricity and magnetism.

Magnetic fields are distinct from electric fields, with forces in magnetic fields being perpendicular to the velocity of moving electrons and the magnetic field. The unit of magnetic field strength, the tesla, is derived from the force equation, with 1 T equal to 1 N/(C·m/s). The discussion also touches on the strength of various magnetic fields, such as the Earth's field and those used in superconductors and magnetic resonance imaging units.

In a magnetic bar found in laboratories, the magnitude of magnetic fields in the human brain can be observed, ranging from 10^-13 depending on the material's reaction to external excitation. Materials are classified based on their magnetization behavior: diamagnetic materials have a negative slope, paramagnetic materials have a positive but small slope, and ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic materials exhibit significantly large susceptibility values. Diamagnetic materials like silver and tin show small negative susceptibilities, while paramagnetic materials like aluminum and platinum have very small positive susceptibilities.

When an electron moves around a nucleus, its associated magnetic moment can be calculated by multiplying the circulating current by the area of the circle. This magnetic moment is directly proportional to the velocity and radius of the electron's orbit. The quantum nature of magnetism reveals that the angular momentum is quantized, being integer multiples of Planck's constant. The magnetic moment of an electron is also quantized, leading to a net magnetism in substances due to the cancellation of individual electron magnetic moments in atoms.

In quantum mechanics, the spin moment, denoted as 's', is a fundamental constant equal to h-bar over 2. It represents the magnetic moment associated with the electron's spin, known as the 'Bohr magneton'. The contribution of the nucleus to the magnetic moment is negligible due to the significantly larger masses of protons and neutrons compared to electrons.

Magnetic substances can be classified into three categories based on their atomic properties: diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic. Diamagnetic substances have a negative slope in their magnetization curves, paramagnetic substances have a small positive slope, and ferromagnetic substances exhibit a hysteresis loop in their curves.

The magnetic susceptibility, denoted as 'X', determines the magnetic behavior of materials. If X is greater than zero, the material is paramagnetic; if X is less than zero, it is diamagnetic. Some materials, like iron, do not follow this relationship. Paramagnetic materials have a positive slope, while diamagnetic materials have a negative slope in their susceptibility curves.

Materials can also be classified based on their magnetic permeability. Paramagnetic materials have a higher permeability than vacuum, while diamagnetic materials have lower permeability. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit significantly higher permeability than vacuum. This comparison helps in categorizing materials based on their magnetic properties.

Ferromagnetic materials have high susceptibility and exhibit ferromagnetism below a critical temperature known as the Curie temperature. Above this temperature, ferromagnetic materials lose their magnetic properties and behave like paramagnetic materials. Care must be taken not to exceed the Curie temperature when working with permanent magnets.

The electronic structure of atoms like nickel, cobalt, and iron plays a crucial role in producing permanent magnets. In these atoms, unpaired electrons in the outermost shells create magnetic moments that align to produce a net magnetic field. Understanding the electronic configuration is essential for designing and manufacturing permanent magnets.

Cobalt has three electrons and nickel has two that contribute to magnetism, while iron has four. Permanent magnets are made using iron, cobalt, and nickel alloys with other materials. The strong magnetization is due to the contribution of unpaired electrons in the internal 3D layers whose magnetic moments align with an external magnetic field.

Rare earth materials in the 4f orbit can exhibit magnetic properties that align with an external magnetic field. However, elements like manganese, chromium, and barium, despite having unpaired electrons, do not contribute significantly to magnetism due to their antiferromagnetic nature where neighboring atoms cancel out each other's magnetic moments.

Manganese, chromium, and barium exhibit antiferromagnetic properties as their magnetic moments are canceled out by neighboring atoms, leading to a lack of overall magnetism. This phenomenon is due to the arrangement of atoms in a solid sample where magnetic moments oppose each other.

In laboratories, mechanical milling is used to crush and mix iron, cobalt, and nickel powders with other substances to reduce atomic separation. By creating alloys with positive exchange energy, the distance between atoms can be optimized to enhance magnetization, crucial for developing permanent magnets.

Researchers worldwide, including at the University of Tolima in Colombia, focus on creating optimal powders and alloys through meticulous laboratory work. These materials are essential for constructing high-quality permanent magnets, which play a vital role in various applications.

Permanent magnets operate based on magnetic domains where magnetic moments align in specific directions within regions. Understanding the behavior of magnetic domains and moments is crucial for designing efficient permanent magnet materials.

Permanent magnets are composed of domains, each with its own direction. When a material is subjected to an external magnetic field, all moments in each domain align towards the right, reinforcing the magnetic field. After removing the external field, a residual field remains, known as the remanent field, which stores information in memories and disks.

The magnetic structure of materials consists of magnetic domains separated by walls called block walls. These walls have a thickness of approximately 300 atoms each, with the magnetic moments gradually changing direction across the walls. Materials with pulverized monodomain particles are ideal for information storage in magnetic tapes and disks, as well as for making permanent magnets.

Magnetostriction is the phenomenon where a ferromagnetic material magnetizes and undergoes dimensional changes due to magnetic forces. This results in elastic deformation, making materials suitable for various industrial applications such as magnetic tapes, disks, and permanent magnet manufacturing.

The magnetization curve, represented by the area under the B-H curve, is crucial as it indicates the energy density of the material. The product of magnetic induction (B) in teslas and magnetic field strength (H) in amperes per meter gives the energy density in joules per cubic meter. Understanding the BH maximum and the temperature dependence of magnetization is essential for practical applications.

Soft ferromagnetic materials have high permeability, low coercivity, and low remanence, making them easy to magnetize and demagnetize. They are used in electronics for applications like relays, transformers, generators, and electromagnets. On the other hand, hard ferromagnetic materials have high coercivity, high remanence, and a high energy product, making them suitable for permanent magnet applications such as headphones.

The evolution of the product B by H started around 1900 with 20 kilojoules per cubic meter and has now reached 400 kilojoules per cubic meter. The best energy properties are found in neodymium magnets, while the best resistance properties are in rare earth and cobalt-based magnets. These materials offer better stability against temperature variations.

The availability and price of neodymium have a significant economic impact globally. With China controlling a large portion of rare earth elements, restrictions on exports have led to a search for alternative materials. This search aims to find cheaper materials for permanent magnets used in various industries, mitigating the economic impact of neodymium scarcity.

Neodymium is used in technological applications such as superconducting magnets in MRI machines for medical purposes. These permanent magnets play a crucial role in healthcare technology, particularly in magnetic resonance imaging equipment.

The event will be held in the same channel where viewers are currently located and can be accessed through the event website. Viewers are encouraged to join at 12:45 sharp to continue with the processes and themes of the first axis. Additionally, it is essential to fill out the attendance form available in the chat to receive a certificate at the end of the event.

The event concludes with a thank you message for the participants.

A musical interlude begins with various musical segments and applause interspersed throughout.

The musical performance continues with a series of musical pieces and applause from the audience.

The music performance starts with a captivating melody, setting the tone for the event.

The audience erupts into applause, showing appreciation for the musicians' talent and skill.

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A brief interlude of applause is interspersed with the ongoing musical presentation, creating a dynamic atmosphere.

Applause marks a transition in the performance, leading to the next segment of the musical showcase.

The harmony between applause and music enhances the overall experience, showcasing a seamless blend of appreciation and performance.

The music continues to captivate the audience, maintaining a high level of engagement and enjoyment.

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A break in the music is filled with applause, showcasing the audience's enthusiasm and support for the performers.

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Applause precedes the next musical segment, building anticipation and creating a sense of anticipation among the listeners.

A break in the music is filled with applause, underscoring the audience's appreciation for the ongoing performance.

The synchronization between applause and music adds depth to the performance, enhancing the overall impact on the audience.

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The harmonious blend of applause and music resonates throughout the venue, symbolizing the unity between performers and audience.

The culmination of applause and music signifies the end of a remarkable performance, leaving a lasting impression on all attendees.

The final applause marks the end of the music event, concluding the evening on a high note of appreciation and celebration.

As the music fades away, the lingering applause serves as a farewell to the performers, expressing gratitude for a memorable experience.

The speaker expresses gratitude to the audience for attending the second congress CF 2023. They announce the continuation of the event with a round of questions involving national and international experts in physics, chemistry, and innovation.

The next presentation will focus on the oral measurement of the constant.

Professor Germán Melo from the special district of science, technology, and innovation in Medellín is introduced to discuss the dialectic of paper and glass in capacitors.

Capacitors are devices used in electrical circuits to store energy. They can have different types such as ceramic, paper, electrolytic, and polystyrene, each with specific applications and properties.

Non-metallic dielectric materials like gases, liquids, and solids are used in capacitors to prevent electrical discharges. Organic dielectrics include paper, polypropylene, and polyester, while inorganic dielectrics include glass and porcelain.

Dielectric constant is a measure of a material's ability to store electrical energy. Materials like glass have a dielectric constant ranging from 5 to 10, while paper has a dielectric constant ranging from 2 to 3.7.

The capacitance in parallel plates is calculated using the dielectric constant, the permittivity of vacuum, the area, and the distance between plates. Care must be taken in unit conversions during experiments to obtain the relative permittivity constant.

Previous research on the electrical properties of paper and glass have shown precise relative permittivity values. Studies have been conducted on the changing electric field with time and the refractive indices of materials like silicon oxide.

The experiment involved measuring the dielectric constant of a material using a method with plates and cylinders. Other methods like resonance, impedance bridge, reflection methods, and microwave impedance spectroscopy are also used. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost and measurement capabilities.

Finding the dielectric constant of materials has applications in research and development of materials, electrical properties of materials, energy generation and transmission, and environmental research. Agronomists also use the constant to calculate soil properties.

The results of the experiment were obtained from a capacitor with parallel plates where paper was placed between them. The formula used involved charge over voltage, and the area of the plates was calculated to validate the formula. The experiment included measuring distances in millimeters and the inverse of the distance to determine the dielectric constant.

In the experiment, the equation and the equation of the line were obtained. Care must be taken with units, as a factor of 10^9 was involved. The distance was initially in millimeters, requiring conversion to meters to adjust the slope. The slope was calculated using the expression where the slope is a constant times the area. The electric constant for paper was determined to be 3.2, with a theoretical value of 3.5, resulting in an 8% error.

Similar procedures were followed for glass with parallel plates. The inverse of the distance in millimeters was graphed against capacitance in nanofarads. After adjusting the data to farads and meters, the slope was determined to be the factor equal to k0. The dielectric constant for glass was found to be 3.9, compared to a theoretical value of 4.2.

The experiment demonstrated the validity of theoretical formulas for parallel plate situations with dielectrics in series. The comparison of theoretical and experimental capacitance values showed a good match, confirming the applicability of the formulas in the laboratory setting.

Capacitance values for glass and paper were compared for series and parallel plate configurations. The theoretical and experimental values showed discrepancies, with errors of 9.5% and 19.1% respectively. The higher error in the parallel configuration indicated a more challenging measurement process.

The dielectric constant for paper was calculated using capacitance values in air and paper-filled plates. The experimental value of 3.46 was close to the theoretical value of 3.5, with a small error of 1.1%. However, caution was advised due to the risky nature of the measurement process.

In the experiment, capacitance was measured in air and glass. The process involved ensuring a precise 2mm distance between plates. In air, a value of 0.079 nanofarads was obtained, while with a 2mm glass plate, the value was 0.324 nanofarads. The electric constant was calculated as 4.1 with a 2.4% error.

Another method involved measuring capacitance using a cylindrical capacitor. The formula used changed to 2pk0l divided by the natural logarithm of the ratio of radii. Experimental data was collected for a cylindrical capacitor with paper inside, yielding a more accurate electric constant of 3.5.

Research conducted with limited data focused on a cylindrical capacitor with two materials inside. A 10cm glass cylinder with paper inside was placed in a copper tube. The equivalent capacitance was calculated by varying the cylinder's length and measuring capacitance, resulting in a more precise value of 7.5 for glass.

The experimental results highlighted the importance of precision in ensuring the paper was tightly fitted around the exterior cylinder. Comparatively, measuring dielectric constants in cylinders proved to be more accurate than in parallel plates. A simulation using Fil software further confirmed the effectiveness of cylindrical capacitors in achieving precise measurements.

The speaker discusses using simulation software to demonstrate the intensity of the electric field in the Physics 2 course. They mention using a program that allows real-time simulations to find the intensity and electric field lines within capacitors. Additionally, they created applications in Geogebra where students can change lengths, radii, and constants to calculate capacitance.

The speaker developed a Python program as an executable for students to input values of radii, constants, and lengths to calculate capacitance. This program serves as a desktop control tool, allowing students to verify experimental measurements against program-generated values.

The speaker mentions using a simulator from the capacitor laboratory to demonstrate various scenarios with capacitors. They highlight the ability to change distances and areas in the simulator, providing flexibility for experimentation and learning. The speaker also references a YouTube video explaining activities related to changing distances and areas for obtaining results.

The speaker discusses how the capacitance values obtained from experiments align with theoretical values. They mention specific capacitance values for different materials like paper and glass, highlighting the accuracy of the experimental results compared to theoretical predictions.

The speaker emphasizes the importance of accurately measuring parameters like plate separation, cylinder length, and radii in experimental setups. They caution against touching capacitors with hands to avoid measurement errors and stress the significance of maintaining material purity and humidity, especially for materials like paper that are sensitive to moisture changes.

The speaker acknowledges the study's disregard for certain effects and mentions the need for more precision by considering capacitance effects in future studies. They suggest comparing results with other equipment like the R7 and highlight the importance of accounting for all relevant factors to enhance measurement accuracy.

The speaker mentions that they have three useful texts available for download: a basic physics textbook for 10th grade, a basic physics textbook for 11th grade, and a laboratory manual with simulators created with engineer Susana. They recommend the manual for institutions lacking laboratory equipment, as everything is simulated with Fed and Pasca. Additionally, they plan to release a book titled 'Discussions and Experimental Activities in General Physics' in a month, which focuses on experiments generating doubts and discussions.

The speaker mentions the upcoming release of a book called 'Discussions and Experimental Activities in General Physics,' which will be available for free download. The book is a result of years of work with the professor, involving measurements with equipment 3 and smartphones using the Tracker program. It focuses on experiments that spark discussions and generate doubts.

The speaker expresses gratitude to the university for the invitation and mentions various individuals and institutions they are thankful to. They appreciate the opportunity to share their years of laboratory experience and knowledge. They thank Germán for his company and knowledge, indicating a positive interaction and exchange of information.

When discussing the measurement of electrical properties of paper, the speaker highlights the need to consider the influence of electromagnetic waves surrounding the experiment. They emphasize the importance of controlling variables and ensuring that external factors do not affect the measurements of the equipment being used.

Regarding the influence of temperature on dielectric properties of paper, the speaker explains that while temperature itself may not directly affect the dielectric constant calculation, humidity can play a role. They mention that increasing temperature in paper can lead to changes in dielectric properties due to possible evaporation, even though temperature is not a direct factor in the calculation.

The speaker discusses the applications of dielectrics in modern technology beyond capacitors. They explain that the main purpose of dielectrics is energy storage, which aligns with current scientific research on energy storage methods. The importance of dielectrics in materials and semiconductor applications, as demonstrated by Professor José Dorian, is highlighted for their role in energy storage technologies.

A request was made to calculate the dielectric constant of a bean as part of analyzing its properties. The calculation involved using a cylinder to assess the material's effects on different quantities.

The speaker expressed gratitude to the audience for attending the event and mentioned the availability of data for further inquiries. They extended an invitation for future presentations at the Universidad Nacional de Abierta de Distancia.

Appreciation was given to all participants, including students, researchers, teachers, and leaders, for their contributions to the event. The agenda proceeded with a presentation on isotropic efficiency in a Cartesian symmetry magnetic dynamic electric generation by José Rizo from the Universidad Politécnica de Querétaro, Mexico.

José Amilcar Rito Sierra introduced the topic of isotropic efficiency of a magneto-hydrodynamic generator with Cartesian symmetry. He outlined the model considerations, load resistance model, validation of results, conclusions, and references to be covered in the presentation.

The generator being discussed is characterized by Cartesian symmetry, with different conductivities in its walls. The upper and lower walls have low conductivity, while the side walls have high conductivity approaching infinity. The goal is to characterize the isotropic efficiency of the generator.

Liquid metal within the duct interacts with a constant magnetic field, causing it to oscillate harmonically due to a pressure gradient. This interaction generates the Magneto aerodynamic effect, inducing an electric current that can be harnessed for efficiency characterization.

To characterize the magnetohydrodynamic flow within the generator, understanding the dynamics of the flow with load resistance is crucial. This involves numerical and computational approaches, as well as applying a load model to achieve the characterization.

The isotropic efficiency of a generator is defined as the ratio of the power delivered to the generator over time to the total power input and viscous dissipation. It involves terms related to electric current, temporal averages, spatial integrals, and various electromagnetic fields.

The magnetic field interacts with the fluid velocity, providing volumetric power to the fluid. This power is used to overcome the force of inertia and maintain oscillation in the generator.

The model formulation involves connecting the generator in a Cartesian symmetry, allowing for high symmetry conditions to solve the problem efficiently. By utilizing a quarter of the generator's cross-sectional area due to the Cartesian symmetry, the equations to be solved and boundary conditions are well-defined.

The load resistance model proposed for calculating efficiency includes the generator's own load resistance connected in parallel with a resistance generated due to dynamic magnetic effects, termed as 'harman resistance.' This physical formulation simplifies the calculation process.

Analytical and numerical solutions were obtained for specific generator conditions, such as zero conductivity in the lateral walls and infinite conductivity in the other walls. The aspect ratio of the generator, comparing height to width, was also considered. The solutions were validated numerically and analytically, showing a strong correspondence between the two methods.

The speaker discusses the validation of model efficiency by comparing a three-dimensional model with a simpler one-dimensional isotropic efficiency model. Results show good correspondence between numerical and analytical results, especially in certain parameter ranges.

The speaker mentions the absence of experimental results in characterizing certain types of generators due to instrumentation difficulties. This lack of experimental data poses challenges in measuring parameters accurately in such contexts.

Results indicate high efficiencies in the range of 5% to 95% for different materials like liquid metal generators in sodium, lead, gallium-indium-tin eutectic mix, sodium-potassium eutectic mix, and lead-lithium eutectic mix. The conversion efficiencies in terms of electrical energy range from 10% to 95%.

Calculations were made considering realistic device parameters suitable for household use. Characteristics like cross-sectional areas, axial lengths, and aspect ratios were analyzed, with the best efficiencies observed for aspect ratios of one. This suggests high efficiencies for such generators in practical applications.

The efficiency of the MHD generator was studied by considering an oscillatory laminar viscous and incompressible flow of liquid metal in a rectangular channel interacting with a uniform magnetic field. The generator's performance was characterized in terms of dimensionless parameters such as the Hartmann number and the oscillatory interaction parameter. The study also investigated the influence of these parameters on electrical isotropic efficiency and flow efficiency through electrical power, flow power, and viscous dissipated power.

The advantages of using MHD technology compared to conventional electric generators include high efficiency, high volumetric energy density, and eco-friendliness. MHD generators are highly efficient and can supply energy for an entire house with devices the size of a medium box. They are non-contaminating and do not negatively impact the environment. However, the development of MHD technology can be complex, and the metals used in generator construction may be costly.

Cristian Felipe Ramírez Gutiérrez, from the Universidad Politécnica de Querétaro, is part of the academic group specializing in Information and Communication Technologies. He presents a study on photonic crystals and their optical response to temperature changes.

Photonic crystals, named for their resemblance to atomic crystals in solid-state physics, exhibit a repeated optical property in space rather than a structure of atoms. This repetition can occur in one, two, or three dimensions depending on the material type.

Photonic crystals share similarities with atomic crystals in solid-state physics, where units repeat in an ordered manner in space. However, photonic crystals repeat an optical property like dielectric constant or refractive index, rather than atomic structures.

Crystals, whether atomic or photonic, exhibit translational symmetry where the minimum unit cell remains invariant upon translation. To analyze these materials, equations like Schrödinger's are solved with periodic potential functions.

Photonic crystals can exist in two or three dimensions, with examples like one-dimensional photonic crystals made of layered structures like porous silicon, which exhibit varying refractive indices due to changes in porosity. In the case of fiber optics, the refractive index changes in the air holes within the fiber, repeating in two dimensions. Additionally, there are three-dimensional photonic crystals composed of small spheres or nanoparticles, providing physical examples of photonic crystals.

The concept of crystals has evolved beyond strict translational symmetry, with institutions like the International Center For Diffraction Data redefining crystals as atomic systems exhibiting discrete diffraction patterns. This redefinition allows for systems with short-range symmetries or ordered structures lacking translational symmetry to be considered crystals, emphasizing the generation of bands due to periodicity.

Crystals can exhibit modulation in their refractive index or thickness locally, leading to interesting optical responses like photonic band gaps. This modulation can result in crystals that fluctuate around their refractive index value or have random variations, creating modulated or incommensurate crystals. These variations do not involve structural movement but rather atomic position changes within the crystals.

The ordering of atoms in solid-state materials results in the formation of bands, such as electronic bands for electrons, distinguishing materials as dielectric or conductive. The band structure classification influences the material's properties, with implications for electron conduction and photon behavior in photonic crystals, leading to the creation of photonic band gaps.

Photonic crystals have a band gap where electromagnetic waves cannot propagate, acting as a mirror. For example, a photonic crystal made of porous silicon changes its refractive index based on porosity, affecting its optical response. Filling the pores with ethanol alters the refractive index, showcasing color changes and potential chemical sensing capabilities.

Temperature influences the refractive index of materials in photonic crystals due to density changes. By analyzing silicon and porous silicon photonic crystals at temperatures up to 450 degrees Celsius to avoid oxidation, it was observed that as temperature increases, the refractive index and absorption coefficient also increase, leading to changes in optical path length and band gap shifting towards longer wavelengths.

A simulation was conducted on photonic crystals, where a shift of 58 nanometers was observed with temperature changes. The simulation also showed that a color change could be macroscopically perceived, indicating the crystals' sensitivity to temperature variations. This phenomenon, reversible in nature, could potentially be utilized as a temperature sensor due to the material's reversible expansion and contraction within a specific temperature range.

A contrast was observed between the simulation and experimental validation of the photonic crystals. While the simulation provided fine data points, the experimental validation had data points only at every 50 grams, resulting in a slightly discontinuous representation. However, despite this difference, the simulation aligned well with the experimental data, showcasing the impact of temperature on crystal geometry and the resulting shift in color.

Temperature variations can alter the geometry of photonic crystals, leading to shifts in color based on the material's coefficient of thermal expansion. For instance, materials with negative expansion coefficients, like certain polymers, exhibit a color shift towards blue as they heat up and return to red as they cool down. This effect can be harnessed for temperature sensing applications, potentially enabling the development of temperature-sensitive optical fibers or color-changing temperature indicators.

The color change in photonic crystals due to temperature variations can serve as a passive sensor for temperature measurement. By monitoring the color shift, one can determine changes in temperature, making it applicable in smart glass technology for adjusting glass color based on temperature. This feature could find applications in areas such as greenhouses, energy management, and detection systems.

The variation in temperature can significantly impact the precision of measurement devices and sensors. Understanding how temperature affects the properties of materials, such as photonic crystals, is crucial for maintaining accuracy in measurements. By leveraging the color-changing properties of materials sensitive to temperature, innovative solutions can be developed for diverse applications in fields like agriculture, energy, and environmental monitoring.

Photonic crystals are utilized in applications, and their optical response is affected by temperature variations. To maintain stable operation, one must either keep the photonic crystal at a constant temperature or account for temperature effects in real-time corrections.

Temperature variations significantly impact the optical response of photonic devices. For example, a 58-nanometer variation in a microcavity due to temperature changes can disrupt laser operation, emphasizing the need for stable temperature conditions in device operation.

To minimize adverse temperature effects in applications, optimizing the design of one-dimensional photonic crystals is crucial. Utilizing algorithms like artificial intelligence or evolutionary computing can help find stable configurations less sensitive to temperature variations.

A talk on designing photonic crystals using artificial intelligence algorithms will be held on Thursday. This session aims to explore how AI can enhance the stability of photonic crystal designs, providing valuable insights for interested individuals.

The evaluation of the superconductor response in alkali metal systems and organic compounds at room temperature will be conducted by Dr. Daniel Castellanos from the Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia. The study aims to delve into the behavior of these materials under specific conditions.

The speaker is a doctoral student at Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, studying physics. The doctoral proposal focuses on evaluating the superconductor response to an alkaline and organic compound environment at room temperature. The proposal includes sections on introduction, justification, problem statement, background, methodology, expected results, and references.

Organic molecules are insulators, but when combined with an alkali metal like potassium, they exhibit conductivity. To achieve superconductivity, the material must have zero resistivity and perfect magnetism, preventing magnetic field penetration. The doctoral thesis aims to vary potassium stoichiometrically in small proportions to investigate superconducting properties.

The production of organic superconductors is environmentally friendly. The speaker's research involves using fullerene, consisting of 60 carbon atoms and three potassium atoms, which are eco-friendly components. In contrast, other superconductors use rare earth elements, copper, and oxygen, which are harmful to the environment.

The speaker compares the production processes of high-temperature superconductors and organic superconductors. The organic superconductor production involves a chemical process using commercial solvents, which is cost-effective and energy-efficient compared to the multi-step, energy-intensive process of high-temperature superconductors.

The research problem involves producing an organic superconductor system in Colombia with a critical temperature of 15 Kelvin. This critical temperature indicates that the material behaves as a superconductor at that specific temperature, demonstrating the unique contribution of the research in Latin America.

At a temperature of 15 Kelvin, the resistivity of the material becomes zero, exhibiting perfect diamagnetism. The magnetic field applied to the superconductor does not allow it to penetrate, indicating ideal diamagnetic behavior.

The graph shows the normalized sensation with the applied field as a function of temperature. At 15 Kelvin, there is a superconducting transition observed, distinguishing between zero-field-cooled (ZFC) and field-cooled (FC) states, with a characteristic magnetic curve indicating superconductivity.

The research focuses on organic superconductors, specifically large carbon molecules combined with alkali metals. The investigation targets organic superconductors, with a particular interest in materials denoted by black triangles, representing the organic superconductors produced to date.

The methodology involves a literature review, superconductor production, structural characterization using X-ray diffraction, structural refinement for comparison, magnetization measurements, resistivity curve analysis, surface examination via scanning electron microscopy, result comparison with external research, publication of findings, and thesis and article writing.

The publication of research results involves identifying superconducting samples from the production process. This step informs other researchers about the non-superconducting combinations and highlights the potential superconducting materials for further investigation.

The anticipated results involve analyzing diffractograms to compare the structure of alkali metal-organic molecule combinations with pure organic molecule structures. The expected outcome includes variations in peak patterns, indicating structural changes in the organic superconductor system.

The combination of alkali metal with an organic molecule in the doping method shows lower magnetic shielding percentages compared to other methods, indicating its inefficiency. The method involving vapor doping with alkali metal exhibits a magnetic shielding growth below 90%, contrasting with highly efficient methods showing shielding percentages above 90%.

The research explores the superconducting behavior of materials, noting that when combined with alkali metal, they exhibit characteristics of a superconductor. Critical temperatures are crucial as they determine the superconducting properties of the materials.

Pressure is not utilized in the method due to cost-effectiveness and simplicity, aiming to minimize expenses. Temperature, on the other hand, plays a significant role, with a specific temperature range required for structural reordering. Higher temperatures would result in increased energy consumption and production costs.

The speaker, who is a professor at the Department of Condensed Matter Physics at the University of Barcelona in Spain, conducted research on various magnetic nanoparticle systems during her master's and doctoral studies. She focused on using synchrotron radiation techniques and transverse magnetic susceptibility. Currently, she is a professor at the Department of Condensed Matter Physics at the University of Barcelona.

The speaker expresses gratitude for the opportunity to share her research on novel materials like quantum materials and their applications. She discusses how these materials can be applied in various ways and mentions that she will focus on metrology, particularly quantum metrology, and information technologies in her presentation.

The science of materials is described as a broad and interdisciplinary field encompassing chemistry, physics, and engineering. The speaker emphasizes that studying the structure, properties, and behavior of materials, as well as developing new materials, is essential. Experimental characterization plays a fundamental role in material science, involving conducting experiments to determine material properties.

The presentation is structured around two main axes: discussing characterization techniques used for new materials, particularly quantum materials, and exploring quantum metrology. The speaker plans to share examples of characterization techniques used in both conventional and advanced laboratory settings, including synchrotron radiation laboratories.

The speaker highlights the importance of the International System of Units (SI) in physics and chemistry for standardizing measurements. The SI is based on seven base units, including the kilogram, meter, second, and ampere, which are used to quantify various physical parameters.

The International System of Units (SI) includes physical quantities like mass, length, time, electric current, and temperature. It originated in the 18th century with standards like a platinum bar for the kilogram and a meter bar for length. These physical standards were kept under controlled conditions to maintain accuracy.

Over time, the SI system transitioned from physical parameters to atomic and quantum phenomena for defining measurement standards. This shift began in the 1970s, with the second being defined based on atomic parameters in 1967. The system was last updated in 2019 to define basic units using well-known constants achieved through technological advancements.

The redefinition of SI units based on constants like Planck's constant for the kilogram, Avogadro's number for the mole, and the speed of light for the meter ensures precise and consistent measurements. This reliance on defined constants eliminates the need for physical artifacts as reference standards.

In electrical measurements, the ampere is defined by the charge of an electron, leading to the establishment of related parameters like resistance, voltage, and electric potential. The development of the Quantum Metrology Triangle in 2001 allowed for defining units like ampere for current, volt for voltage, and ohm for resistance based on quantum parameters.

In 2015, quantum materials like two-dimensional materials such as graphene exhibited the phenomenon of resistance quantization. This phenomenon is characterized by resistance steps in resistance versus magnetic field graphs, with each step's height directly related to Planck's constant and the electron charge. Measurements of these phenomena are highly precise, even at temperatures as high as 100 Kelvin. Graphene, a quantum material, is known for presenting this phenomenon, making it a significant area of study in physics.

Topological insulators, a type of quantum material, are predicted to exhibit resistance quantization similar to graphene but without the need for high magnetic fields. These materials, recognized for their topological phase transitions, gained prominence in 2016 when the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to researchers who developed the theory to understand quantum-level phenomena in such materials. The recognition highlighted the importance of studying and utilizing the properties of topological materials in defining measurement standards.

The field of topological materials, including topological insulators, gained recognition in 2016 with the Nobel Prize in Physics awarded to researchers for their work in understanding quantum phenomena in these materials. These materials undergo topological phase transitions and offer unique properties that can be harnessed for various applications, particularly in quantum meteorology. The study and utilization of topological materials have become a significant area of research in physics.

Topology, a branch of physics and mathematics, deals with shapes and forms. Understanding topology is crucial in studying materials like topological insulators, which exhibit unique properties and phase transitions. The recognition of topological materials in the Nobel Prize in Physics 2016 underscored the importance of delving into the intricate concepts of quantum mechanics to harness the potential of these materials for various applications.

Understanding the behavior of quantum materials involves deforming materials to observe their topological properties and how they interact with other materials. Topology theory explains quantized conductivity seen in materials like the effect H quantum, due to topological transitions. Materials with different topologies exhibit varied behaviors, influencing their properties and conductance.

An illustrative example of topology is comparing a sphere to a torus. When trying to flatten hairs on a sphere's surface, singularities occur due to the sphere's shape. However, on a torus, the hairs can be distributed more uniformly without singularities, showcasing how surface properties depend on the material's topology.

Topology not only affects trivial aspects but also plays a crucial role in electronic behavior and response of materials. The electronic properties at the surface often depend on the material's central structure or bulk. Topological insulators, for instance, exhibit unique behavior where the central bulk acts as an insulator while the surface allows rapid electron transport, resembling a traffic analogy with congested central lanes and fast surface avenues.

Topological insulators have a distinctive electronic transport behavior where the central bulk is insulating, while the surface facilitates fast electron transport with well-defined spin moments. These materials exhibit channels of electronic transport with clear spin moments, making them intriguing for study. They are characterized by band diagrams showing Dirac materials with defined conical structures, similar to graphene.

In the discussion, it was highlighted that in materials with high spin-orbit interaction, a band gap known as the energy gap exists at the center, leading to no electrical conduction. This property arises from atomic and structural interactions within the material.

The conversation delved into the presence of protected electron channels on the material's surface, shielded by temporal inversion symmetry. Breaking this symmetry results in the suppression of channels, leaving a single defined spin state on the surface, leading to the emergence of the anomalous quantum Hall effect.

The anomalous quantum Hall effect, unlike traditional quantum effects, does not require a high magnetic field for observation. By suppressing channels and observing this phenomenon, a quantization of resistivity occurs, offering a precise standard for electrical resistance applicable in quantum methodology.

Topological insulators, such as those discussed, offer unique properties and applications. Their potential lies in not requiring excessively high magnetic fields like graphene for quantum effects, making them valuable in various technological applications.

To observe the anomalous quantum Hall effect, strategies for inducing magnetism in materials were explored. Methods included doping materials with magnetic impurities or proximity to magnetic layers. The speaker's recent work focused on inducing magnetism in topological insulators by growing thin layers of materials like europium sulfide in proximity to magnetic materials like garnets.

The process of inducing magnetism involved epitaxial growth of thin layers of topological insulators like antimony and bismuth chalcogenides in controlled conditions. This growth was carried out in an ultra-high vacuum equipment for precise growth of the insulating layers.

The speaker discusses the process of growing and characterizing thin films in a specific family of topological insulators. They mention transporting the insulating layer to a second chamber for growing magnetic materials. Various characterization techniques such as radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light), forces (magnetic fields, electric fields, pressure), and irradiation with electrons or ions are used to study the structure, morphology, and chemical properties of the thin films.

The focus shifts to the magnetic characterization of the thin films to induce magnetism and observe specific effects in topological insulators. High-quality thin films of materials like tellurium and bismuth are grown on substrates, and atomic force microscopy is used to improve surface quality and crystal structure. The speaker also mentions studying electronic and magnetic properties using large-scale facilities for advanced characterization.

The speaker introduces advanced techniques used in research laboratories for studying the interaction between radiation and matter. Techniques involve radiation such as X-rays or atomic particles, studying phenomena like absorption, scattering, and diffraction. Mention is made of synchrotron radiation facilities worldwide, with a specific example being the Alba synchrotron radiation facility near the Autonomous University of Barcelona.

There are synchrotron radiation facilities worldwide, with a powerful one located in Grenoble, France. In Europe, facilities like Alba in Spain and various others exist. In Latin America, there is a facility in Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil. The Australian Synchrotron was built as the first in the Southern Hemisphere. Additionally, there are neutron facilities in Peru and Argentina.

Various spectroscopic and scattering techniques are utilized, including diffraction and imaging for topography and material analysis. Neutron imaging provides more detailed material information compared to X-ray imaging, showcasing the power and potential of these techniques.

The speaker's research primarily focuses on radiation, utilizing synchrotron facilities to study topological insulators for quantum methodology and electronic devices. They also explore multifunctional materials using X-ray absorption spectroscopy to excite atom levels and analyze material composition.

The speaker discusses the magnetic characterization of iron in their material, focusing on both electronic and magnetic levels. They mention observing transitions in magnetic materials and how the absorption differences due to polarization can indicate the magnetism of the material.

The speaker explains the concept of a dichroic signal in europium sulfide, where different absorptions are observed for different energy ranges and polarizations. By subtracting these absorptions, a unique signal is obtained, indicating magnetic sensitivity in the material.

The speaker introduces magnetometry as a technique to measure magnetism in materials. They mention using this technique on different types of materials, including isolating topological insulators in contact with magnetic materials to induce magnetism.

The speaker discusses the interest in inducing magnetism in topological insulators by placing them in contact with magnetic materials. They aim to verify the unusual magnetism reported in europium sulfide bilayers with topological insulators using direct techniques.

The speaker aims to verify the reported ferromagnetism at room temperature and the presence of magnetic signals within the ecological insulator. They conduct measurements on europium sulfide to confirm its magnetism.

Despite previous reports of magnetism at room temperature, the research did not observe an increase in magnetism in the europium system due to its proximity to the topological insulator. This negative result was considered valid as it contrasted with previous findings, indicating the sensitivity and directness of the research technique.

The interest in observing magnetism in the topological insulator stems from its potential role in exhibiting anomalous quantum Hall effect, making it a key ingredient for quantum metrology. The research did not find magnetism in the topological insulator, as the magnetic signals obtained were below expected levels.

The research results contrasted with previous reports, suggesting that the topological insulator did not acquire a magnetic moment due to its proximity to the material. This finding was part of a broader investigation published in an article detailing the relevant results obtained using the same characterization technique on various materials.

The discussion shifted to demonstrating the use of synchrotron techniques for applications beyond quantum metrology, particularly in characterizing new quantum materials for various technological purposes. The research focuses on developing and designing new materials for information technologies to enhance efficiency and functionality in compact devices like smartphones.

As technology advances, the development of more efficient and compact devices poses challenges related to energy losses and inefficiencies in information processing. These challenges stem from the methods used for computing, reading, and processing information within devices, impacting their overall energy efficiency.

The development of magnetic materials in RAM involves the use of multilayer structures for both writing and reading information bits. This process includes switching or changing the orientation of magnetic materials within the layers. However, a drawback is the inefficiency due to the high electrical currents required for switching, leading to significant energy consumption.

Recent efforts focus on developing technologies to improve efficiency by reducing energy consumption in electronic devices. One approach involves using electric fields instead of electrical currents for switching information bits from one state to another. This shift aims to address the high energy consumption associated with current methods.

The goal is to create solid-state electronic devices with low energy consumption, where the magnetic response of materials is controlled by an electric field. Magnetostrictive materials, particularly oxide-based materials, are commonly used for this purpose.

Complex oxides, such as strontium manganite, play a crucial role in technological advancements. These materials exhibit multifunctional properties, including high magneto-electric coupling. The unique properties of these materials enable the control of magnetic responses through electric fields, paving the way for energy-efficient devices.

Magnetostrictive materials, like strontium manganite, undergo strain engineering when grown in thin layers. This process allows for the modification of their electrical and magnetic properties by inducing controlled stresses in the crystal structure. Techniques like pulsed deposition are used to grow these materials, enabling the manipulation of their properties for various applications.

The speaker discusses the research methodology involving growing layers of a material on different substrates to induce varying tensions. They mention growing these materials on different substrates to achieve high quality, particularly on strontium manganite, and conducting magnetic measurements at a synchrotron radiation laboratory to observe the magnetic response. The goal is to study the emergence of ferromagnetism under tension and investigate mechanisms for potential electronic device applications.

The speaker emphasizes the importance of advanced material characterization techniques in obtaining relevant information about new materials. They focus on quantum materials like topological insulators and functional materials with magneto-electric coupling. These materials show potential for applications in new electronic devices, highlighting the significance of characterizing materials for technological advancements.

The speaker expresses gratitude for the opportunity to present and acknowledges the support of collaborators, funding entities, and project partners. They specifically thank collaborators in projects related to quantum materials and technology companies like Intel and IBM. The speaker mentions collaborating with a German metrology agency for measuring materials and working on projects funded at the European level to advance material standards and technology implementation.

Quantum materials like graphene and other two-dimensional materials offer advantages in information technology due to their efficient electronic transport properties. For example, graphene, being composed of single carbon atoms, exhibits unique electronic transport properties not found in other materials. These materials allow for efficient information transport with minimal losses, enabling the creation of more efficient information channels and connections in devices.

Graphene, being a two-dimensional material, possesses properties like efficient electronic transport due to its monoatomic structure and composition of carbon atoms. However, graphene lacks spin-orbit coupling, limiting its magnetic control capabilities. Despite this, graphene and other two-dimensional materials show promise in efficient electronic transport and even exhibit phenomena like superconductivity under certain conditions.

The discussion concludes with gratitude for the participation and contributions to the event. The speaker expresses appreciation for the engaging and informative event, thanking all attendees, both virtual and in-person. Additionally, the speaker extends an invitation to the upcoming second day of the International Congress on Research and Teaching of Physics, highlighting the diverse pedagogical and research opportunities presented during the event.